Перевод: со всех языков на английский

с английского на все языки

attempted use

  • 1 attempted use

    ■ Act of purposely engaging in conduct planned to culminate in the ingestion, injection or consumption of any prohibited substance or in the application of any prohibited method, constituting an anti-doping rule violation.
    ■ Absichtliche Einleitung einer Handlung, die auf Einnahme, Injektion oder Konsum einer verbotenen Substanz oder Anwendung einer verbotenen Methode in irgendeiner Form ausgerichtet ist und einen Verstoß gegen Antidoping-Vorschriften darstellt.

    Englisch-deutsch wörterbuch fußball > attempted use

  • 2 anti-doping rule violation

    ■ A case, circumstance or conduct that goes against valid anti-doping rules, and which results in disciplinary proceedings and sanctions against the parties concerned.
    ► According to the UEFA Anti-Doping Regulations, the following constitute anti-doping rule violations: The presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers in a player's specimen, the use or attempted use of a prohibited substance or method, refusing or evading sample collection, violation of applicable requirements regarding athlete availability for out-of-competition testing, and missed tests which are declared based on reasonable rules, tampering or attempting to tamper with any part of control, possession of prohibited substances and methods, trafficking in any prohibited substance or prohibited method and any type of complicity involving an anti-doping rule violation or attempted violation.
    ■ Jeder Tatbestand und jede Handlung, die eine Verletzung der geltenden Antidoping-Bestimmungen darstellen und ein Disziplinarverfahren gegen die betreffenden Parteien nach sich ziehen.
    ► Laut UEFA-Dopingreglement und in Einverständnis mit dem Welt-Anti-Doping-Code gelten folgende Handlungen und Tatbestände als Verstoß gegen Antidoping-Vorschriften: Das Vorhandensein einer verbotenen Substanz oder ihrer Metaboliten oder Marker in einer Probe des Spielers, die Verwendung oder versuchte Verwendung einer verbotenen Substanz oder einer verbotenen Methode, die Weigerung, sich der Abgabe bzw. Entnahme einer Probe zu unterziehen, oder jede anderweitige Umgehung der Probenahme, die Verletzung der Anforderungen hinsichtlich der Verfügbarkeit des Spielers für Dopingkontrollen außerhalb von Wettbewerbsspielen sowie verpasste Kontrollen, die Manipulation eines Teils einer Dopingkontrolle oder der Versuch einer Manipulation, der Besitz von verbotenen Substanzen und Methoden, der Handel mit verbotenen Substanzen oder verbotenen Methoden, sowie jede Art von Mittäterschaft im Zusammenhang mit einem Verstoß oder versuchten Verstoß gegen Antidoping-Vorschriften.

    Englisch-deutsch wörterbuch fußball > anti-doping rule violation

  • 3 crear

    v.
    1 to create.
    me crea muchos problemas it gives me a lot of trouble, it causes me a lot of problems
    Picasso creó escuela Picasso's works have had a seminal influence
    Ricardo crea obras de arte Richard creates works of art.
    Ellas crean criaturas raras They create weird creatures.
    2 to invent.
    3 to found.
    4 to make, to make up.
    * * *
    1 (gen) to create
    2 (fundar) to found, establish; (partido) to set up
    3 (inventar) to invent
    1 to make, make for oneself
    2 (imaginarse) to imagine
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    VT
    1) (=hacer, producir) [+ obra, objeto, empleo] to create
    2) (=establecer) [+ comisión, comité, fondo, negocio, sistema] to set up; [+ asociación, cooperativa] to form, set up; [+ cargo, puesto] to create; [+ movimiento, organización] to create, establish, found

    ¿qué se necesita para crear una empresa? — what do you need in order to set up o start a business?

    aspiraban a crear un estado independiente — they aimed to create o establish o found an independent state

    3) (=dar lugar a) [+ condiciones, clima, ambiente] to create; [+ problemas] to cause, create; [+ expectativas] to raise

    el vacío creado por su muerte — the gap left o created by her death

    4) liter (=nombrar) to make, appoint
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) <obra/modelo/tendencia> to create, < producto> to develop
    b) < sistema> to create, establish, set up; < institución> to set up, create; <comisión/fondo> to set up; < empleo> to create; < ciudad> to build
    2) <dificultades/problemas> to cause, create; <ambiente/clima> to create; <fama/prestigio> to bring; < reputación> to earn
    2.
    crearse v pron < problema> to create... for oneself
    * * *
    = design (for/to), construct, create, engender, establish, fashion, forge, form, invent, set up, compose, originate, bring into + being, mint, found, institute, come into + existence, mother, come up with.
    Ex. In lists designed for international use a symbolic notation instead of textual notes may be used.
    Ex. The objective in executing these three stages is to construct a document profile which reflects its subject = El propósito de llevar a cabo estas tres etapas es elaborar un perfil documental que refleje su materia.
    Ex. National agencies creating MARC records use national standards within their own country, and re-format records to UNIMARC for international exchange.
    Ex. In addition to problems with new subjects which lacked 'accepted' or established names, this guiding principle engendered inconsistency in the form of headings.
    Ex. The intention is to establish a general framework, and then to give exceptions or further explanation and examples for each area in turn.
    Ex. The preliminary discussions and proposals which led up to the AACR, did start out with an attempt to fashion an ideology, a philosophical context, for those rules.
    Ex. This article calls on libraries to forge a renewed national commitment to cooperate in the building of a national information network for scholarly communications.
    Ex. Formed in 1969, the first operational system was implemented in 1972-3.
    Ex. Frequently, but not always, this same process will have been attempted by the author when inventing the title, and this explains why the title is often a useful aid to indexing.
    Ex. By imposing a ban one is only likely to set up antagonism and frustration which will turn against the very thing we are trying to encourage.
    Ex. There have never been any attempts to compose a bibliography of US government documents relating to international law.
    Ex. In the 'office of the present', a document is usually produced by several people: someone, say an administrator or manager, who originates and checks it, a typist, who prepares the text, and a draughtsman or artist who prepares the diagrams.
    Ex. MARC was brought into being originally to facilitate the creation of LC catalogue cards.
    Ex. The article 'The newly minted MLS: what do we need to know today?' describes the skills which, ideally, every US library school graduate should possess at the end of the 1990s.
    Ex. The earliest community information service in Australia dates from as recently as 1958 when Citizens' Advice Bureaux, modelled on their British namesake, were founded in Perth = El primer servicio de información ciudadana de Australia es reciente y data de 1958 cuando se creó en Perth la Oficina de Información al Ciudadano, a imitación de su homónima británica.
    Ex. The librarians have instituted a series of campaigns, including displays and leaflets on specific issues, eg family income supplement, rent and rates rebates, and school grants.
    Ex. Some university libraries have been built up over the centuries; others have come into existence over the last 40 years.
    Ex. Necessity mothers invention, and certainly invention in the presentation of books mothers surprised interest.
    Ex. Derfer corroborated her: 'I'd be very proud of you if you could come up with the means to draft a model collection development policy'.
    ----
    * crear adicción = be addictive.
    * crear alianzas = form + alliances, make + alliances.
    * crear apoyo = build + support.
    * crear canales para = establish + channels for.
    * crear con gran destreza = craft.
    * crear consenso = forge + consensus.
    * crear demanda = make + demand.
    * crear de nuevo = recreate [re-create].
    * crear desconfianza = create + distrust.
    * crear desesperación = yield + despair.
    * crear falsas ilusiones = create + false illusions.
    * crear interés = build + interest.
    * crear la ilusión = generate + illusion.
    * crear lazos = build up + links.
    * crear lazos afectivos = bond.
    * crear posibilidades = open + window, create + possibilities.
    * crear problemas = make + waves, build up + problems, make + trouble.
    * crear prototipos = prototype.
    * crear relaciones = structure + relationships.
    * crearse = build up, hew.
    * crearse el prestigio de ser = establish + a record as.
    * crear servidor web = put up + web site.
    * crearse una identidad = forge + identity.
    * crearse una vida = build + life.
    * crear una alianza = forge + alliance.
    * crear una base = form + a basis.
    * crear una buena impresión en = make + a good impression on.
    * crear una coalición = forge + coalition.
    * crear una colección = build + collection.
    * crear un acuerdo = work out + agreement.
    * crear una familia = have + a family.
    * crear una ilusión = create + illusion.
    * crear una imagen = build + an image, create + image, summon up + image.
    * crear una injusticia = create + injustice.
    * crear una marca de identidad = branding.
    * crear una ocasión = create + opportunity.
    * crear una preocupación = create + concern.
    * crear una situación = create + a situation.
    * crear un clima = promote + climate.
    * crear un comité = set up + committee.
    * crear un entorno = create + an environment.
    * crear un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * crear un fondo común de conocimientos = pool + knowledge.
    * crear un fondo común de experiencias profesionales = pool + expertise.
    * crear un grupo = set up + group.
    * crear un índice = generate + index.
    * crear un mercado para = produce + a market for.
    * crear un perfil = compile + profile, formulate + profile.
    * crear un servidor web = open up + web site.
    * crear vínculos = build up + links.
    * crear vínculos afectivos = bond.
    * oposición + crear = opposition + line up.
    * que crea adicción = addictive.
    * que crea hábito = addictive.
    * volver a crear = recreate [re-create].
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) <obra/modelo/tendencia> to create, < producto> to develop
    b) < sistema> to create, establish, set up; < institución> to set up, create; <comisión/fondo> to set up; < empleo> to create; < ciudad> to build
    2) <dificultades/problemas> to cause, create; <ambiente/clima> to create; <fama/prestigio> to bring; < reputación> to earn
    2.
    crearse v pron < problema> to create... for oneself
    * * *
    = design (for/to), construct, create, engender, establish, fashion, forge, form, invent, set up, compose, originate, bring into + being, mint, found, institute, come into + existence, mother, come up with.

    Ex: In lists designed for international use a symbolic notation instead of textual notes may be used.

    Ex: The objective in executing these three stages is to construct a document profile which reflects its subject = El propósito de llevar a cabo estas tres etapas es elaborar un perfil documental que refleje su materia.
    Ex: National agencies creating MARC records use national standards within their own country, and re-format records to UNIMARC for international exchange.
    Ex: In addition to problems with new subjects which lacked 'accepted' or established names, this guiding principle engendered inconsistency in the form of headings.
    Ex: The intention is to establish a general framework, and then to give exceptions or further explanation and examples for each area in turn.
    Ex: The preliminary discussions and proposals which led up to the AACR, did start out with an attempt to fashion an ideology, a philosophical context, for those rules.
    Ex: This article calls on libraries to forge a renewed national commitment to cooperate in the building of a national information network for scholarly communications.
    Ex: Formed in 1969, the first operational system was implemented in 1972-3.
    Ex: Frequently, but not always, this same process will have been attempted by the author when inventing the title, and this explains why the title is often a useful aid to indexing.
    Ex: By imposing a ban one is only likely to set up antagonism and frustration which will turn against the very thing we are trying to encourage.
    Ex: There have never been any attempts to compose a bibliography of US government documents relating to international law.
    Ex: In the 'office of the present', a document is usually produced by several people: someone, say an administrator or manager, who originates and checks it, a typist, who prepares the text, and a draughtsman or artist who prepares the diagrams.
    Ex: MARC was brought into being originally to facilitate the creation of LC catalogue cards.
    Ex: The article 'The newly minted MLS: what do we need to know today?' describes the skills which, ideally, every US library school graduate should possess at the end of the 1990s.
    Ex: The earliest community information service in Australia dates from as recently as 1958 when Citizens' Advice Bureaux, modelled on their British namesake, were founded in Perth = El primer servicio de información ciudadana de Australia es reciente y data de 1958 cuando se creó en Perth la Oficina de Información al Ciudadano, a imitación de su homónima británica.
    Ex: The librarians have instituted a series of campaigns, including displays and leaflets on specific issues, eg family income supplement, rent and rates rebates, and school grants.
    Ex: Some university libraries have been built up over the centuries; others have come into existence over the last 40 years.
    Ex: Necessity mothers invention, and certainly invention in the presentation of books mothers surprised interest.
    Ex: Derfer corroborated her: 'I'd be very proud of you if you could come up with the means to draft a model collection development policy'.
    * crear adicción = be addictive.
    * crear alianzas = form + alliances, make + alliances.
    * crear apoyo = build + support.
    * crear canales para = establish + channels for.
    * crear con gran destreza = craft.
    * crear consenso = forge + consensus.
    * crear demanda = make + demand.
    * crear de nuevo = recreate [re-create].
    * crear desconfianza = create + distrust.
    * crear desesperación = yield + despair.
    * crear falsas ilusiones = create + false illusions.
    * crear interés = build + interest.
    * crear la ilusión = generate + illusion.
    * crear lazos = build up + links.
    * crear lazos afectivos = bond.
    * crear posibilidades = open + window, create + possibilities.
    * crear problemas = make + waves, build up + problems, make + trouble.
    * crear prototipos = prototype.
    * crear relaciones = structure + relationships.
    * crearse = build up, hew.
    * crearse el prestigio de ser = establish + a record as.
    * crear servidor web = put up + web site.
    * crearse una identidad = forge + identity.
    * crearse una vida = build + life.
    * crear una alianza = forge + alliance.
    * crear una base = form + a basis.
    * crear una buena impresión en = make + a good impression on.
    * crear una coalición = forge + coalition.
    * crear una colección = build + collection.
    * crear un acuerdo = work out + agreement.
    * crear una familia = have + a family.
    * crear una ilusión = create + illusion.
    * crear una imagen = build + an image, create + image, summon up + image.
    * crear una injusticia = create + injustice.
    * crear una marca de identidad = branding.
    * crear una ocasión = create + opportunity.
    * crear una preocupación = create + concern.
    * crear una situación = create + a situation.
    * crear un clima = promote + climate.
    * crear un comité = set up + committee.
    * crear un entorno = create + an environment.
    * crear un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * crear un fondo común de conocimientos = pool + knowledge.
    * crear un fondo común de experiencias profesionales = pool + expertise.
    * crear un grupo = set up + group.
    * crear un índice = generate + index.
    * crear un mercado para = produce + a market for.
    * crear un perfil = compile + profile, formulate + profile.
    * crear un servidor web = open up + web site.
    * crear vínculos = build up + links.
    * crear vínculos afectivos = bond.
    * oposición + crear = opposition + line up.
    * que crea adicción = addictive.
    * que crea hábito = addictive.
    * volver a crear = recreate [re-create].

    * * *
    crear [A1 ]
    vt
    A
    1 ‹obra/modelo› to create; ‹tendencia› to create
    crear una nueva imagen para el producto to create a new image for the product
    crearon un producto revolucionario they developed o created a revolutionary product
    2 ‹sistema› to create, establish, set up; ‹institución› to set up, create; ‹comisión/fondo› to set up; ‹empleo› to create
    crearon una ciudad en pleno desierto they built a city in the middle of the desert
    B ‹dificultades/problemas› to cause, create; ‹ambiente/clima› to create; ‹fama/prestigio› to bring; ‹reputación› to earn
    su arrogancia le creó muchas enemistades his arrogance made him many enemies
    no quiero crear falsas expectativas en mis alumnos I don't want to raise false hopes among my students, I don't want to give my students false hopes
    se crea muchas dificultades he creates o makes a lot of problems for himself
    ¿para qué te creas más trabajo? why make more work for yourself?
    será difícil llenar el vacío creado con su desaparición it will be difficult to fill the gap left by his death
    * * *

     

    crear ( conjugate crear) verbo transitivo
    to create;
    ‹ producto› to develop;
    ‹institución/comisión/fondo› to set up;
    ‹fama/prestigio› to bring;
    ‹ reputación› to earn;
    ◊ crea muchos problemas it causes o creates a lot of problems;

    no quiero crear falsas expectativas I don't want to raise false hopes
    crearse verbo pronominal ‹ problema› to create … for oneself;

    ‹ enemigos› to make
    crear verbo transitivo to create
    ' crear' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    falsificar
    - hacer
    - ilusionar
    - infundio
    - rompecabezas
    - constituir
    - formar
    - meter
    English:
    boat
    - bonding
    - create
    - fashion
    - never-never land
    - rapport
    - stage
    - afoot
    - develop
    - devise
    - disrupt
    - establish
    - illusion
    - set
    - you
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [hacer, producir, originar] to create;
    crear empleo/riqueza to create jobs/wealth;
    han creado un nuevo ministerio para él they have created a new ministry for him;
    me crea muchos problemas it gives me a lot of trouble, it causes me a lot of problems;
    Picasso creó escuela Picasso's works have had a seminal influence
    2. [inventar] to invent;
    [poema, sinfonía] to compose, to write; [cuadro] to paint
    3. [fundar] to found
    * * *
    v/t create; empresa set up
    * * *
    crear vt
    1) : to create, to cause
    2) : to originate
    * * *
    crear vb
    1. (en general) to create
    2. (comité, empresa, etc) to set up

    Spanish-English dictionary > crear

  • 4 curioso

    adj.
    curious, funny, odd, eccentric.
    m.
    1 snooper, rubberneck, busybody, eavesdropper.
    2 bystander.
    * * *
    1 curious
    2 (indiscreto) inquisitive
    3 (aseado) clean, tidy, neat
    4 (extraño) strange, odd
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 (mirón) onlooker
    2 peyorativo (indiscreto) nosy parker, busybody
    * * *
    (f. - curiosa)
    adj.
    2) peculiar, unusual
    * * *
    curioso, -a
    1. ADJ
    1) [persona] curious; (=indiscreto) inquisitive
    2) (=raro) [acto, objeto] curious, odd

    ¡qué curioso! — how odd!, how curious!

    3) (=aseado) neat, clean, tidy
    4) (=cuidadoso) careful, conscientious
    2. SM / F
    1) (=presente) bystander, onlooker
    2) (=interesado)
    3) (=cotilla) busybody
    * * *
    I
    - sa adjetivo
    1) (interesante, extraño) curious, strange, odd

    es curioso que... — it's odd o strange that...

    lo curioso del caso es que... — the strange o funny thing is that...

    2)
    a) [ser] ( inquisitivo) inquisitive; ( entrometido) (pey) nosy* (colloq)
    b) [estar] ( interesado) curious
    3) (Esp) ( pulcro) neat
    II
    - sa masculino, femenino
    a) ( espectador) onlooker

    abstenerse curiosos — (Esp) no timewasters

    b) (fam) ( fisgón) busybody (colloq)
    * * *
    = curious, quaint, inquisitive, onlooker, intriguing, prying.
    Ex. Books in miniature formats were attempted from time to time, although they may always be more curious than useful.
    Ex. Clergymen practice the quaint custom of reading aloud at meal times.
    Ex. Skilled and inquisitive use of libraries can enrich the academic and personal lives of students.
    Ex. One of the problems identified by staff from the use of Prestel in the library has been the noise from the set or from onlookers.
    Ex. Graphic displays are an intriguing step towards a multi-dimensional pictorial map of the subject areas covered by a thesaurus.
    Ex. Our books are not open to general requests from the general public, or prying individuals seeking to find something with which to find fault.
    ----
    * curioso por conocer = interrogator, interrogator.
    * curioso por saber = interrogator.
    * miradas curiosas = prying eyes.
    * objeto curioso = knick knack.
    * objetos curiosos = bric-a-brac.
    * ojos curiosos = prying eyes.
    * * *
    I
    - sa adjetivo
    1) (interesante, extraño) curious, strange, odd

    es curioso que... — it's odd o strange that...

    lo curioso del caso es que... — the strange o funny thing is that...

    2)
    a) [ser] ( inquisitivo) inquisitive; ( entrometido) (pey) nosy* (colloq)
    b) [estar] ( interesado) curious
    3) (Esp) ( pulcro) neat
    II
    - sa masculino, femenino
    a) ( espectador) onlooker

    abstenerse curiosos — (Esp) no timewasters

    b) (fam) ( fisgón) busybody (colloq)
    * * *
    = curious, quaint, inquisitive, onlooker, intriguing, prying.

    Ex: Books in miniature formats were attempted from time to time, although they may always be more curious than useful.

    Ex: Clergymen practice the quaint custom of reading aloud at meal times.
    Ex: Skilled and inquisitive use of libraries can enrich the academic and personal lives of students.
    Ex: One of the problems identified by staff from the use of Prestel in the library has been the noise from the set or from onlookers.
    Ex: Graphic displays are an intriguing step towards a multi-dimensional pictorial map of the subject areas covered by a thesaurus.
    Ex: Our books are not open to general requests from the general public, or prying individuals seeking to find something with which to find fault.
    * curioso por conocer = interrogator, interrogator.
    * curioso por saber = interrogator.
    * miradas curiosas = prying eyes.
    * objeto curioso = knick knack.
    * objetos curiosos = bric-a-brac.
    * ojos curiosos = prying eyes.

    * * *
    curioso1 -sa
    A (interesante, extraño) curious, strange, odd
    es curioso que no haya venido it's odd o strange o curious that she hasn't come
    lo curioso del caso es que … the strange o funny o odd o curious thing is that …
    B
    1 [ SER] (inquisitivo) inquisitive; (entrometido) ( pey) nosy* ( colloq)
    2 [ ESTAR] (interesado) curious
    estoy curiosa por saber qué pasó I'm curious to know what happened
    C (pulcro) neat
    curioso2 -sa
    masculine, feminine
    1 (espectador) onlooker
    [ S ] abstenerse curiosos ( Esp); no timewasters
    2 ( fam) (fisgón) busybody ( colloq)
    * * *

     

    curioso
    ◊ -sa adjetivo

    1 (interesante, extraño) curious, strange, odd
    2

    ( entrometido) (pey) nosy( conjugate nosy) (colloq)
    b) [estar] ( interesado) curious

    ■ sustantivo masculino, femenino

    b) (fam) ( fisgón) busybody (colloq)

    curioso,-a
    I adjetivo
    1 (indiscreto) curious, inquisitive
    2 (extraño) strange, odd
    lo curioso es que..., the strange thing is that...
    3 (limpio) neat, tidy
    II sustantivo masculino y femenino
    1 (mirón) onlooker
    2 pey (chismoso) nosey-parker, busybody
    ' curioso' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    curiosa
    - inquieta
    - inquieto
    English:
    curious
    - enough
    - funny
    - inquisitive
    - odd
    - Peeping Tom
    - quaint
    - rubberneck
    - strange
    - droll
    - inquiring
    * * *
    curioso, -a
    ♦ adj
    1. [por saber, averiguar] curious, inquisitive
    2. [raro] odd, strange;
    ¡qué curioso! how odd!, how strange!;
    lo más curioso es que… the oddest o strangest thing is that…;
    es curioso que… it's odd o strange that…
    3. [limpio] neat, tidy;
    [cuidadoso] careful
    4. [fisgón] inquisitive, nosy
    ♦ nm,f
    1. [espectador] onlooker
    2. [fisgón] inquisitive o nosy person
    * * *
    I adj
    1 persona curious
    2 ( raro) curious, odd, strange
    II m, curiosa f onlooker
    * * *
    curioso, -sa adj
    1) : curious, inquisitive
    2) : strange, unusual, odd
    ♦ curiosamente adv
    * * *
    curioso adj
    1. (extraño) strange
    ¡qué curioso! how strange!
    2. (interesado) inquisitive
    3. (indiscreto) nosy [comp. nosier; superl. nosiest]

    Spanish-English dictionary > curioso

  • 5 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 6 escala

    f.
    1 scale.
    escala Celsius Celsius (temperature) scale
    escala de Richter Richter scale
    escala salarial salary scale
    escala de valores set of values
    2 scale.
    un dibujo a escala natural a life-size drawing
    a escala mundial on a worldwide scale
    a gran escala on a large scale
    3 stopover.
    hacer escala to stop over
    sin escala non-stop
    escala técnica refueling stop
    4 scale (Music).
    5 ladder (escalera).
    6 intermediate stop.
    7 staging post.
    pres.indicat.
    3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: escalar.
    imperat.
    2nd person singular (tú) Imperative of Spanish verb: escalar.
    * * *
    1 (escalera - de mano) ladder; (- de tijera) stepladder
    3 (mapa, plano, etc) scale
    4 (port) port of call; (airport) stopover
    5 MÚSICA scale
    6 MILITAR promotion list
    \
    a gran escala / en gran escala on a large scale
    en pequeña escala on a small scale
    hacer escala (en barco) to put in (en, at); (en avión) to stop over (en, in)
    escala de gato rope ladder
    escala de valores scale of values
    escala móvil sliding scale
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) [en medición, gradación] scale

    • a escala — [dibujo, mapa, maqueta] scale antes de s

    un mapa hecho a escala — a map drawn to scale, a scale map

    • a escala real — life-size antes de s

    • reproducir algo a escala — to reproduce sth to scale

    escala de colores — colour spectrum, color spectrum (EEUU)

    escala de tiempo — (Geol) time scale

    escala de valores — set of values, scale of values

    escala móvil — (Téc) sliding scale; (Econ) sliding salary scale

    escala social — social ladder, social scale

    2) [de importancia, extensión]

    un problema a escala mundial — a global problem, a problem on a worldwide scale

    • a o en gran escala — on a large scale

    • a o en pequeña escala — on a small scale

    un caso de corrupción a pequeña escala — a case of small-scale corruption, a case of corruption on a small scale

    3) (=parada en ruta)
    a) (Aer) stopover

    • hacer escala — to stop over

    b) (Náut) port of call

    escala técnica — refuelling o (EEUU) refueling stop

    4) (=escalera de mano) ladder

    escala de cuerda, escala de viento — rope ladder

    5) (Mús) scale
    * * *
    1) ( para mediciones) scale
    2) (Mús) scale
    4)
    a) (de mapa, plano) scale

    una reproducción a escala natural — a life-size o life-sized reproduction

    b) (de fenómeno, problema) scale

    a escala nacional — on a nationwide o national scale

    a or en gran escala — on a large scale

    5) (Aviac, Náut) stopover
    6) ( escalera) ladder
    * * *
    = echelon, magnitude, range, scale, scale, shade, spectrum [spectra, -pl.], continuum, gradation, stopover, rating scale, port of call, rating, sliding scale.
    Ex. Involvement of lower echelon personnel in planning has the advantage of getting the practical point of view of those closer to the scene of the operations.
    Ex. Only those who have attempted to edit the proceedings of a conference can appreciate the magnitude and scope of such an enterprise.
    Ex. Overall, the library media specialists experienced stress in the mild to moderate range.
    Ex. The scale of a map is the distance as shown on the map in relation to actual distance.
    Ex. Various scales of relevance ratings may be established.
    Ex. Partly because of the fact that documents have shades of relevance to a given topic this is an impossible objective.
    Ex. As one respondent from this end of the information spectrum put it, 'Context is all in the information world'.
    Ex. At the other end of the continuum is the form of hack writing typified by the poorest quality of adventure stories (often mildly pornographic).
    Ex. Until the mid nineteen hundreds, this community presented an almost feudal pattern of wealthy merchants and factory hands, with several gradations between these extremes.
    Ex. This article discusses the strategic location of the Islands as a stopover and spring-board for more far-flung explorations along the African coast.
    Ex. This process will allow institutional evaluators to compare their individual evaluations using a standardized format and rating scale.
    Ex. ' Ports of Call' is an enchanting, lovely, scary and sad book, as good as any.
    Ex. But the rater must not be afraid to give negative ratings.
    Ex. For insulin dosing, use a sliding scale based on patient weight as well as on blood sugar values.
    ----
    * a + Adjetivo + escala = on a + Adjetivo + scale.
    * a escala = drawn-to-scale.
    * a escala industrial = on an industrial scale, industrial-scale.
    * a escala mundial = globally, on a global scale.
    * a escala natural = full-scale.
    * a gran escala = large scale [large-scale], massive, on a wide scale, high-volume, wide-scale, on a broad scale, in a big way, on a grand scale.
    * a menor escala = at a reduced rate.
    * a pequeña escala = in a small way, small scale [small-scale].
    * a un extremo de la escala = at one end of the scale.
    * en el otro extremo de la escala = at the other extreme.
    * en el otro extremo de la escala = at the other end of the scale, at the other end of the spectrum.
    * en otra escala = on a different plane.
    * en un extremo de la escala = at one extreme.
    * escala de ampliación = enlargement ratio.
    * escala de grises = grey scale [gray scale].
    * escala de reducción = reduction ratio.
    * escala de tarifas según los ingresos = sliding fee scale.
    * escala de valores = graded range, set of values.
    * escala de Wechsler = Wechsler scale.
    * escala móvil = sliding scale.
    * escala que consta de nueve grados = nine-point scale.
    * escala salarial = salary scale, pay scale, salary schedule, salary range, salary band, sliding pay scale.
    * escala temporal = time continuum.
    * estar hecho a escala = be to scale.
    * hacer escala = stop over.
    * IGE (Integración a Gran Escala) = LSI (Large Scale Integration).
    * IME (Integración a Media Escala) = MSI (Medium Scale Integration).
    * IPE (Integración a Pequeña Escala) = SSI (Small Scale Integration).
    * mención de escala = statement of scale.
    * Nombre + a gran escala = broad scale + Nombre.
    * puerto de escala = port of call.
    * seguir una escala = fall along + a continuum.
    * * *
    1) ( para mediciones) scale
    2) (Mús) scale
    4)
    a) (de mapa, plano) scale

    una reproducción a escala natural — a life-size o life-sized reproduction

    b) (de fenómeno, problema) scale

    a escala nacional — on a nationwide o national scale

    a or en gran escala — on a large scale

    5) (Aviac, Náut) stopover
    6) ( escalera) ladder
    * * *
    = echelon, magnitude, range, scale, scale, shade, spectrum [spectra, -pl.], continuum, gradation, stopover, rating scale, port of call, rating, sliding scale.

    Ex: Involvement of lower echelon personnel in planning has the advantage of getting the practical point of view of those closer to the scene of the operations.

    Ex: Only those who have attempted to edit the proceedings of a conference can appreciate the magnitude and scope of such an enterprise.
    Ex: Overall, the library media specialists experienced stress in the mild to moderate range.
    Ex: The scale of a map is the distance as shown on the map in relation to actual distance.
    Ex: Various scales of relevance ratings may be established.
    Ex: Partly because of the fact that documents have shades of relevance to a given topic this is an impossible objective.
    Ex: As one respondent from this end of the information spectrum put it, 'Context is all in the information world'.
    Ex: At the other end of the continuum is the form of hack writing typified by the poorest quality of adventure stories (often mildly pornographic).
    Ex: Until the mid nineteen hundreds, this community presented an almost feudal pattern of wealthy merchants and factory hands, with several gradations between these extremes.
    Ex: This article discusses the strategic location of the Islands as a stopover and spring-board for more far-flung explorations along the African coast.
    Ex: This process will allow institutional evaluators to compare their individual evaluations using a standardized format and rating scale.
    Ex: ' Ports of Call' is an enchanting, lovely, scary and sad book, as good as any.
    Ex: But the rater must not be afraid to give negative ratings.
    Ex: For insulin dosing, use a sliding scale based on patient weight as well as on blood sugar values.
    * a + Adjetivo + escala = on a + Adjetivo + scale.
    * a escala = drawn-to-scale.
    * a escala industrial = on an industrial scale, industrial-scale.
    * a escala mundial = globally, on a global scale.
    * a escala natural = full-scale.
    * a gran escala = large scale [large-scale], massive, on a wide scale, high-volume, wide-scale, on a broad scale, in a big way, on a grand scale.
    * a menor escala = at a reduced rate.
    * a pequeña escala = in a small way, small scale [small-scale].
    * a un extremo de la escala = at one end of the scale.
    * en el otro extremo de la escala = at the other extreme.
    * en el otro extremo de la escala = at the other end of the scale, at the other end of the spectrum.
    * en otra escala = on a different plane.
    * en un extremo de la escala = at one extreme.
    * escala de ampliación = enlargement ratio.
    * escala de grises = grey scale [gray scale].
    * escala de reducción = reduction ratio.
    * escala de tarifas según los ingresos = sliding fee scale.
    * escala de valores = graded range, set of values.
    * escala de Wechsler = Wechsler scale.
    * escala móvil = sliding scale.
    * escala que consta de nueve grados = nine-point scale.
    * escala salarial = salary scale, pay scale, salary schedule, salary range, salary band, sliding pay scale.
    * escala temporal = time continuum.
    * estar hecho a escala = be to scale.
    * hacer escala = stop over.
    * IGE (Integración a Gran Escala) = LSI (Large Scale Integration).
    * IME (Integración a Media Escala) = MSI (Medium Scale Integration).
    * IPE (Integración a Pequeña Escala) = SSI (Small Scale Integration).
    * mención de escala = statement of scale.
    * Nombre + a gran escala = broad scale + Nombre.
    * puerto de escala = port of call.
    * seguir una escala = fall along + a continuum.

    * * *
    Compuestos:
    Beaufort scale
    ● escala centígrada or Celsius
    [ Vocabulary notes (Spanish) ] centigrade o Celsius scale
    set of values
    [ Vocabulary notes (Spanish) ] Fahrenheit scale
    Mercalli scale
    sliding scale
    Richter scale
    salary o wage scale
    B ( Mús) scale
    Compuestos:
    chromatic scale
    diatonic scale
    musical scale
    C
    (escalafón): la escala social the social scale
    D
    1 (de un mapa, plano) scale
    un dibujo hecho a escala a scale drawing, a drawing done to scale
    una reproducción a escala natural a life-size o life-sized reproduction
    la maqueta reproduce el teatro a escala it's a scale model of the theater
    2 (de un fenómeno, problema) scale
    a escala nacional/mundial on a nationwide o national/on a worldwide scale
    el negocio empezó a or en pequeña escala the business began on a small scale
    todo lo hacen a or en gran escala they do everything on a large scale
    es un ladrón en pequeña escala he's a small-time thief ( colloq)
    E ( Aviac, Náut) stopover
    tras una escala de tres horas en Atenas after a three-hour stopover in Athens
    hicimos/el avión hizó escala en Roma we/the plane stopped over in Rome
    un vuelo sin escalas a direct flight
    la primera escala será Tánger the first port of call will be Tangiers
    Compuesto:
    refueling* stop
    el aparato tuvo que hacer una escala técnica en París the plane had to make a refueling stop o to stop for refueling in Paris
    F (escalera) ladder
    Compuestos:
    ● escala de cuerda or de viento
    rope ladder
    royal flush
    extending ladder
    * * *

     

    Del verbo escalar: ( conjugate escalar)

    escala es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo

    2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo

    Multiple Entries:
    escala    
    escalar
    escala sustantivo femenino
    1 ( en general) scale;
    ◊ escala centígrada/Fahrenheit centigrade o Celsius/Fahrenheit scale;

    escala de valores set of values;
    escala musical (musical) scale;
    la escala social the social scale;
    hecho a escala done to scale;
    a gran escala on a large scale
    2 (Aviac, Náut) stopover;

    escalar ( conjugate escalar) verbo transitivo ‹montaña/pared› to climb, scale;
    (en jerarquía, clasificación) to climb (up)
    verbo intransitivo (Dep) to climb, go climbing
    escala sustantivo femenino
    1 (serie, gradación) scale: la maqueta se realizó a escala, the model was made to scale
    la escala decimal, decimal scale
    2 (de colores) range
    escala de valores, set of values
    3 (parada provisional) Náut port of call
    Av stopover: el avión hace escala en Barcelona, the plane stops over in Barcelona
    escala técnica, refuelling stop
    4 (escalera portátil) ladder, stepladder
    5 (clasificación del personal de una empresa) position: subió de escala en la organización, he was promoted to a higher position in the company
    6 (Mús) scale: tocó una escala muy alta, difícil de seguir con la voz, she played a very high scale which was difficult to sing
    escalar
    I verbo transitivo to climb, scale
    II adjetivo Elec
    ♦ Locuciones: magnitud escalar, scalar quantitity
    ' escala' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    bastante
    - do
    - fa
    - la
    - re
    - sol
    - abajo
    - arriba
    - descendente
    - mayor
    - modelo
    - nivel
    - tarifa
    English:
    call in
    - full-scale
    - grade
    - kit
    - ladder
    - large-scale
    - model
    - nationally
    - nationwide
    - originate
    - point
    - port of call
    - price range
    - put in
    - range
    - Richter scale
    - rise
    - scale
    - scale down
    - sliding scale
    - small-scale
    - stop
    - stop off
    - stop over
    - stopover
    - wholesale
    - country
    - full
    - global
    - put
    - rope
    - sliding
    - time
    * * *
    escala nf
    1. [para medir, ordenar] scale;
    [de colores] range; [de cargos militares] scale of ranks;
    subió varios puestos en la escala social he climbed several rungs of the social ladder
    escala Celsius Celsius (temperature) scale;
    escala centígrada Celsius scale;
    escala Fahrenheit Fahrenheit scale;
    Informát escala de grises grayscale;
    escala Kelvin Kelvin scale;
    Mat escala logarítmica logarithmic scale;
    escala de popularidad popularity stakes;
    escala de Richter Richter scale;
    escala salarial pay o salary scale;
    escala de valores set of values
    2. [de dibujo, mapa] scale;
    un mapa a escala 1/3000 a 1/3000 scale map;
    un dibujo a escala natural a life-size drawing
    3. [de trabajo, plan, idea] scale;
    pretenden crear una casa de discos a escala reducida they aim to set up a small-scale record company;
    a escala nacional/mundial on a national/worldwide scale;
    una ofensiva a gran escala a full-scale offensive
    4. Mús scale;
    la escala musical the musical scale
    escala cromática chromatic scale;
    escala diatónica diatonic scale
    5. [en un vuelo] stopover;
    [en un crucero] port of call;
    un vuelo a Estambul con escala en Roma a flight to Istanbul with a stopover in Rome;
    hacer escala (en) to stop over (in);
    sin escala non-stop;
    un vuelo sin escalas a non-stop flight
    escala de repostaje refuelling stop;
    escala técnica refuelling stop;
    haremos escala técnica en Londres we will make a refuelling stop in London
    6. [escalera] ladder
    Náut escala de cuerda rope ladder; Náut escala de viento rope ladder
    * * *
    f
    1 tb
    MÚS scale;
    a escala to scale, life-sized;
    a escala mundial on a world scale;
    en o
    a gran escala large-scale atr, on a large scale
    2 AVIA stopover;
    hacer escala en stop over in
    * * *
    escala nf
    1) : scale
    2) escalera: ladder
    3) : stopover
    * * *
    una escala de 1:50 a scale of of 1:50
    2. (parada) stopover

    Spanish-English dictionary > escala

  • 7 Huygens, Christiaan

    SUBJECT AREA: Horology
    [br]
    b. 14 April 1629 The Hague, the Netherlands
    d. 8 June 1695 The Hague, the Netherlands
    [br]
    Dutch scientist who was responsible for two of the greatest advances in horology: the successful application of both the pendulum to the clock and the balance spring to the watch.
    [br]
    Huygens was born into a cultured and privileged class. His father, Constantijn, was a poet and statesman who had wide interests. Constantijn exerted a strong influence on his son, who was educated at home until he reached the age of 16. Christiaan studied law and mathematics at Ley den University from 1645 to 1647, and continued his studies at the Collegium Arausiacum in Breda until 1649. He then lived at The Hague, where he had the means to devote his time entirely to study. In 1666 he became a Member of the Académie des Sciences in Paris and settled there until his return to The Hague in 1681. He also had a close relationship with the Royal Society and visited London on three occasions, meeting Newton on his last visit in 1689. Huygens had a wide range of interests and made significant contributions in mathematics, astronomy, optics and mechanics. He also made technical advances in optical instruments and horology.
    Despite the efforts of Burgi there had been no significant improvement in the performance of ordinary clocks and watches from their inception to Huygens's time, as they were controlled by foliots or balances which had no natural period of oscillation. The pendulum appeared to offer a means of improvement as it had a natural period of oscillation that was almost independent of amplitude. Galileo Galilei had already pioneered the use of a freely suspended pendulum for timing events, but it was by no means obvious how it could be kept swinging and used to control a clock. Towards the end of his life Galileo described such a. mechanism to his son Vincenzio, who constructed a model after his father's death, although it was not completed when he himself died in 1642. This model appears to have been copied in Italy, but it had little influence on horology, partly because of the circumstances in which it was produced and possibly also because it differed radically from clocks of that period. The crucial event occurred on Christmas Day 1656 when Huygens, quite independently, succeeded in adapting an existing spring-driven table clock so that it was not only controlled by a pendulum but also kept it swinging. In the following year he was granted a privilege or patent for this clock, and several were made by the clockmaker Salomon Coster of The Hague. The use of the pendulum produced a dramatic improvement in timekeeping, reducing the daily error from minutes to seconds, but Huygens was aware that the pendulum was not truly isochronous. This error was magnified by the use of the existing verge escapement, which made the pendulum swing through a large arc. He overcame this defect very elegantly by fitting cheeks at the pendulum suspension point, progressively reducing the effective length of the pendulum as the amplitude increased. Initially the cheeks were shaped empirically, but he was later able to show that they should have a cycloidal shape. The cheeks were not adopted universally because they introduced other defects, and the problem was eventually solved more prosaically by way of new escapements which reduced the swing of the pendulum. Huygens's clocks had another innovatory feature: maintaining power, which kept the clock going while it was being wound.
    Pendulums could not be used for portable timepieces, which continued to use balances despite their deficiencies. Robert Hooke was probably the first to apply a spring to the balance, but his efforts were not successful. From his work on the pendulum Huygens was well aware of the conditions necessary for isochronism in a vibrating system, and in January 1675, with a flash of inspiration, he realized that this could be achieved by controlling the oscillations of the balance with a spiral spring, an arrangement that is still used in mechanical watches. The first model was made for Huygens in Paris by the clockmaker Isaac Thuret, who attempted to appropriate the invention and patent it himself. Huygens had for many years been trying unsuccessfully to adapt the pendulum clock for use at sea (in order to determine longitude), and he hoped that a balance-spring timekeeper might be better suited for this purpose. However, he was disillusioned as its timekeeping proved to be much more susceptible to changes in temperature than that of the pendulum clock.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1663. Member of the Académie Royale des Sciences 1666.
    Bibliography
    For his complete works, see Oeuvres complètes de Christian Huygens, 1888–1950, 22 vols, The Hague.
    1658, Horologium, The Hague; repub., 1970, trans. E.L.Edwardes, Antiquarian
    Horology 7:35–55 (describes the pendulum clock).
    1673, Horologium Oscillatorium, Paris; repub., 1986, The Pendulum Clock or Demonstrations Concerning the Motion ofPendula as Applied to Clocks, trans.
    R.J.Blackwell, Ames.
    Further Reading
    H.J.M.Bos, 1972, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C.C.Gillispie, Vol. 6, New York, pp. 597–613 (for a fuller account of his life and scientific work, but note the incorrect date of his death).
    R.Plomp, 1979, Spring-Driven Dutch Pendulum Clocks, 1657–1710, Schiedam (describes Huygens's application of the pendulum to the clock).
    S.A.Bedini, 1991, The Pulse of Time, Florence (describes Galileo's contribution of the pendulum to the clock).
    J.H.Leopold, 1982, "L"Invention par Christiaan Huygens du ressort spiral réglant pour les montres', Huygens et la France, Paris, pp. 154–7 (describes the application of the balance spring to the watch).
    A.R.Hall, 1978, "Horology and criticism", Studia Copernica 16:261–81 (discusses Hooke's contribution).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Huygens, Christiaan

  • 8 Burgi, Jost

    SUBJECT AREA: Horology
    [br]
    b. 28 February 1552 Lichtensteig, Switzerland
    d. 31 January 1632 Kassel, Germany
    [br]
    Swiss clockmaker and mathematician who invented the remontoire and the cross-beat escapement, also responsible for the use of exponential notation and the calculation of tables of anti-logarithms.
    [br]
    Burgi entered the service of Duke William IV of Hesse in 1579 as Court Clockmaker, although he also assisted William with his astronomical observations. In 1584 he invented the cross-beat escapement which increased the accuracy of spring-driven clocks by two orders of magnitude. During the last years of the century he also worked on the development of geometrical and astronomical instruments for the Royal Observatory at Kassel.
    On the death of Duke Wilhelm in 1603, and with news of his skills having reached the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, in 1604 he went to Prague to become Imperial Watchmaker and to assist in the creation of a centre of scientific activity, subsequently becoming Assistant to the German astronomer, Johannes Kepler. No doubt this association led to an interest in mathematics and he made significant contributions to the concept of decimal fractions and the use of exponential notation, i.e. the use of a raised number to indicate powers of another number. It is likely that he was developing the idea of logarithms at the same time (or possibly even before) Napier, for in 1620 he made his greatest contribution to mathematics, science and, eventually, engineering, namely the publication of tables of anti-logarithms.
    At Prague he continued the series of accurate clocks and instruments for astronomical measurements that he had begun to produce at Kassel. At that period clocks were very poor timekeepers since the controller, the foliot or balance, had no natural period of oscillation and was consequently dependent on the driving force. Although the force of the driving weight was constant, irregularities occurred during the transmission of the power through the train as a result of the poor shape and quality of the gearing. Burgi attempted to overcome this directly by superb craftsmanship and indirectly by using a remontoire. This device was wound at regular intervals by the main driving force and fed the power directly to the escape wheel, which impulsed the foliot. He also introduced the crossbeat escapement (a variation on the verge), which consisted of two coupled foliots that swung in opposition to each other. According to contemporary evidence his clocks produced a remarkable improvement in timekeeping, being accurate to within a minute a day. This improvement was probably a result of the use of a remontoire and the high quality of the workmanship rather than a result of the cross-beat escapement, which did not have a natural period of oscillation.
    Burgi or Prague clocks, as they were known, were produced by very few other makers and were supplanted shortly afterwards by the intro-duction of the pendulum clock. Burgi also produced superb clockwork-driven celestial globes.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Ennobled 1611.
    Bibliography
    Burgi only published one book, and that was concerned with mathematics.
    Further Reading
    L.von Mackensen, 1979, Die erste Sternwarte Europas mit ihren Instrumenten and Uhren—400 Jahre Jost Burgi in Kassel, Munich.
    K.Maurice and O.Mayr (eds), 1980, The Clockwork Universe, Washington, DC, pp. 87– 102.
    H.A.Lloyd, 1958, Some Outstanding Clocks Over 700 Years, 1250–1950, London. E.T.Bell, 1937, Men of Mathematics, London: Victor Gollancz.
    See also: Briggs, Henry
    KF / DV

    Biographical history of technology > Burgi, Jost

  • 9 цель

    (= намерение) aim, purpose, target, goal, object, end, mark
    • Более контролируемый способ достижения той же цели это... - A more controlled way of achieving the same end is to...
    • Более полезной для наших целей формой уравнения (1) является... - A form of (1) more useful for our purposes is...
    • В наши цели не входит обсуждать здесь, что... - It is not our intention to argue here that...
    • Вторая цель - установить, что... - A second objective is to ensure that...
    • Вышеуказанная цель была достигнута. - The above objective has been achieved.
    • Главной целью является... - The main objective is to...
    • Для большинства целей, однако, достаточно (выбрать и т. п.)... - For most purposes it is, however, sufficient to...
    • Для достижения этой цели... - With this aim in mind...; To accomplish these ends...
    • Для многих целей предпочтительно (выбрать и т. п.)... - For many purposes it is preferable to...
    • Для многих целей уравнение (10) полезно именно в том виде, как оно приведено. - For many purposes, equation (10) is useful as it stands.
    • Для нашей цели совершенно не существенно, как выбирается значение х. - For our present purpose it does not matter how x is chosen.
    • Для наших целей будет удобно... - It will be convenient for our purposes to...
    • Для наших целей подходит следующее достаточно грубое определение. - For our purposes the following rather rough definition is adequate.
    • Для наших целей удобно (ввести и т. п.)... - For our purposes it is convenient to...
    • Для наших целей эти детали не являются важными. - For our purposes the details are not important.
    • Для некоторых целей (нам) желательно иметь... - For certain purposes it is desirable to have...
    • Для этой цели мы должны... - For this purpose we must...
    • Для этой цели удобно... - For this purpose, it is convenient to...
    • Значительно более важным для наших целей является... - Far more important for our purposes is...
    • Изменение точки зрения необходимо с целью... - A shift in perspective is needed in order to...
    • К несчастью, это не реальная цель, потому что... - Unfortunately this is an unrealistic goal because...
    • Мы уже несколько раз сообщали о нашей цели (изучить и т. п.)'... - We have indicated a few times our intention to...
    • На самом деле для настоящих целей достаточно рассмотреть... - In fact it is sufficient for the present purpose to consider...
    • Наконец, для некоторых целей могло бы иметь преимущества... - Finally, it might be advantageous for some purposes to...
    • Напоминаем, что целью данного упражнения является... - Recall that the purpose of the exercise is to...
    • Наша цель здесь - переработать это в форму, которая... - Our aim is to recast this in a form which is...
    • Наша цель имеет три направления. - Our goal is three-fold.
    • Нашей основной целью является описание... - Our main purpose is to given an exposition of...
    • Нашей основной целью является описание систематических методов для... - Our first concern is to describe systematic methods for...
    • Нашей основной целью является определение... - The main objective is to determine...
    • Нашей целью будет... - Our task will be to...
    • Нашей целью не является развернутое рассмотрение (теории и т. п.)... - It is not our purpose to give an extensive treatment of...
    • Нашей целью является доказательство того, что это действительно справедливо. - Our objective is to show that this is indeed the case.
    • Нашей целью является изучить... - Our object is to study...
    • Нашей целью является не систематическое развитие предмета, а, скорее,... - Our interest is not to develop the subject systematically, but to...
    • Нашей целью является решение уравнение (1), подчиненного (условию и т. п.)... - Our objective is to solve (1) subject to...
    • Однако все эти моменты находятся в стороне от целей данной работы. - These are, however, outside the scope of this work.
    • Однако поскольку данная формула слишком сложна для практических целей, мы будем... - Since, however, this formula is too complicated for practical purposes, we shall...
    • Однако следует попробовать провести такой анализ с целью... - But such an analysis has to be attempted in order to...
    • Однако этот метод совершенно не удовлетворяет нашим целям. - This procedure, however, falls far short of our goal.
    • Одной из главных целей данного обсуждения является... - One of the main goals of the discussion is...
    • Основной целью данной книги является... - The principal aim of the present book is to...
    • Особенно важным для наших целей является случай, что... - Particularly important for our purposes is the case of...
    • Полное обсуждение подобных факторов находится вне целей данной работы. - A full discussion of such factors is beyond the scope of this paper.
    • С тем, чтобы сфокусировать наше внимание на одной специальной цели, мы... - In order to focus our attention on a specific objective, we shall...
    • С учетом целей этого тома здесь невозможно дать детальный отчет о... - It is impossible within the scope of this volume to give a detailed account of...
    • С целью анализа мы предположим... - For purposes of analysis we shall assume...
    • С целью дальнейшего использования заметим здесь... - Let us note here, for future use,...
    • С целью дальнейших ссылок мы отметим, что... - We note for future reference that...
    • С целью использования соотношения (14) мы заметим, что... - Wishing to exploit (14), we note that...
    • С целью произвести оценки предположим что... - For the purpose of making estimates, suppose that...
    • С целью упростить обозначения мы предполагаем, что... - For simplicity of notation, we assume that...
    • С этой целью мы будем использовать... - For this purpose, we shall use...
    • С этой целью мы заметим, что... - То this end (= For this purpose), we note that...
    • Следующей нашей целью будет описание... - Our next task is to describe...
    • Таким образом, для наших целей мы всегда можем воспользоваться... - Thus for our purposes we may always use...
    • Требуются дальнейшие наблюдения с целью... - Further observations are required in order to...
    • Удобная для практических целей формулировка состоит в следующем... - For practical applications a convenient formulation is...
    • Удобным методом достижения необходимой цели является... - A convenient way to accomplish this is to...
    • Цель данной книги - обеспечить... - It is the aim of this book to provide...
    • Цель данной книги состоит в... - The purpose of this book is to...
    • Цель состоит в том, чтобы показать, что... - The aim is to show that...
    • Целью более абстрактной формулировки (6) является то, что... - The aim of the more abstract formulation (6) is to...
    • Целью данной главы является представление... - It is the purpose of this chapter to present...
    • Целью данной главы является развитие... - The aim of this chapter is to develop...
    • Цель данной заметки заключается в том, чтобы сообщить, что... - It is the purpose of this note to announce that...
    • Целью данной книги является описание... - The purpose of this book is to describe...
    • Целью настоящего обсуждения является... - It is the purpose of the present discussion to...
    • Целью следующего параграфа является нахождение условий, которые позволят нам... - The aim of the next section is to establish conditions which enable us to...
    • Целью такого представления является... - The purpose of such a representation is to...
    • Целью этого параграфа является краткий обзор... - The purpose of this section is to give a quick sketch of...
    • Чтобы достичь цели, необходимо... - То meet this objective, it is necessary to...
    • Это достаточно для нашей цели в связи с... - It is sufficient for the purpose in view...
    • Это существенно для наших целей. - This is essential for our purposes.
    • Этот подход может достигнуть цели, лишь если... - This approach can succeed only if...
    • Я считаю, что целью данного симпозиума является... - A goal for this symposium, I believe is to ensure we all understand...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > цель

  • 10 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 11 подход

    approach
    • Альтернативный подход использует такие понятия как... - The alternative approach uses notions such as...
    • Альтернативный подход содержится в идее... - An alternative approach is contained in the idea of...
    • Альтернативным подходом является (его) запись (в виде)... - An alternative approach is to write...
    • Более научным подходом является... - A more scientific approach is to...
    • Более простой подход получается, если заметить, что... - A simpler approach is to observe that...
    • Более удовлетворительный подход описывается ниже. - A better approach is as follows.
    • Более успешный подход заключался в том, чтобы использовать... - A more successful approach has been to use...
    • Будут упомянуты три возможных подхода. - Three possible approaches will be mentioned.
    • В данной главе рассматривается еще один подход... - This chapter is concerned with yet another approach to...
    • В данном подходе имеется неявное предположение, что... - Implicit in this viewpoint is the assumption that...
    • В данном случае можно использовать другой подход. - In this case a different approach can be used.
    • В основном, различные подходы приводят к... - Different approaches will, in general, lead to...
    • В этой главе будут описываться два подхода... - This chapter will describe two approaches to...
    • Вместо этого можно воспользоваться эмпирическим подходом. - Instead, an empirical approach can be adopted.
    • Возможно, это разумный подход. - This is probably a sensible approach.
    • Данный подход должен быть изменен так, чтобы он учитывал тот факт, что... - The approach must be modified to accommodate the fact that...
    • Данный подход наиболее соответствует исследуемой задаче. - This approach is best matched to the problem under consideration.
    • Данный подход нарушает основной принцип... - This approach violates the basic principle of...
    • Данный подход показывает, что... - The present approach shows that...
    • Другие подходы к той же задаче будут намечены ниже. - The different approaches to this problem will be outlined below.
    • Другой подход поддерживался Смитом [1]. - A different approach was advocated by Smith [1].
    • Еще одним подходом является... - Still another approach is to...
    • Заслуживает упоминания другой подход к проблеме этого типа. - Another approach to problems of this type is worthy of notice.
    • Более удовлетворительный подход это... - A much more satisfactory approach is to...
    • Можно принять/предложить более детализированный подход... -It is possible to adopt/to choose/to take/to use a more detailed approach to...
    • Мы обсудим три общих подхода. - We shall discuss three general approaches.
    • Мы решили использовать более эмпирический подход. - We decided to adopt a more empirical approach.
    • Наиболее простым подходом является... - The most primitive approach is to...
    • Неадекватность чисто вычислительных подходов к данной проблеме усиливала необходимость в... - The inadequacy of purely computational approaches to the problem intensified the need for...
    • Один интересный альтернативный подход начинается с... - An interesting alternative approach begins with...
    • Один очень интересный подход был предложен Смитом [1]. - A very interesting approach has been proposed by Smith [1].
    • Однако подобный подход не является удовлетворительным, поскольку... - Such an approach, however, is usually not satisfactory because...
    • Разработчики использовали различные подходы, чтобы получить... - Designers have used various approaches in arriving at...
    • Совершенно другой подход базируется на... - A fundamentally different approach is based on...
    • Тем самым предлагается другой подход к проблеме... - This suggests another approach to the problem of...
    • Успех такого подхода будет определяться... - The success of this attack will be determined by...
    • Что теряется в подобном подходе - это... - What is lacking in such an approach is...
    • Эдисон изобрел новый подход к... - Edison invented a new way to...
    • Эта глава представляет один подход к решению... - This chapter presents one approach to the solution of...
    • Эти два подхода связаны тем обстоятельством, что... - The two aspects are related by the fact that...
    • Эти темы покрывают три различных подхода к истории математики. - The topics covered span three different approaches to the history of mathematics.
    • Это подход, предложенный Смитом [1]. - This is the approach suggested by Smith [1].
    • Этот подход был впервые опробован Смитом [1]. - This approach was first attempted by Smith [1].
    • Этот подход был использован при изучении... - This approach has been used in the study of...
    • Этот подход доказал свою полезность в определении ранних стадий... - This approach has proven useful in identifying the early stages of...
    • Этот подход имеет то преимущество, что... - This approach has the advantage that...
    • Этот подход может быть успешным лишь если... - This approach can succeed only if...
    • Этот подход особенно привлекателен ввиду... - This approach is especially attractive in view of...
    • Этот подход очень полезен при анализе эффектов (чего-л). - This approach is very useful in analyzing the effects of...
    • Этот подход предлагает существенные математические преимущества, потому что... - This approach offers considerable mathematical advantages, because...
    • Этот подход принимается, поскольку... - This approach is adopted because...
    • Этот подход требует солидного (обеспечения и т. п.)... - This approach requires a good deal of...
    • Этот фундаментальный подход полезен при решении... - This fundamental approach is useful in solving...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > подход

  • 12 próżno

    adv. książk. (it’s) no use
    - na próżno in vain, to no avail
    - próbowali go przekonać, ale na próżno they attempted to reason with him, but in vain a. to no avail
    - na próżno szukał tu jakiegoś sensu he tried in vain to find some sense in it
    - długo czekał, ale na próżno he waited a long time in vain
    - wszystko było na próżno it was all in vain
    - nasza praca nie będzie na próżno our work won’t be in vain
    * * *
    adv

    na próżno — in vain, to no avail

    * * *
    adv.
    vainly, in vain; futilely; na próżno in vain, to no avail; strzępić sobie język na próżno waste one's breath, whistle down the wind; trudzić się na próżno try in vain.

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > próżno

  • 13 शिव


    ṡivá
    mf (ā́)n. (according to Uṇ. I, 153, fr. 1. ṡī, « in whom all things lie» ;

    perhaps connected with ṡvi cf. ṡavas, ṡiṡvi) auspicious, propitious, gracious, favourable, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly, dear (ám ind. kindly, tenderly) RV. etc. etc.;
    happy, fortunate BhP. ;
    m. happiness, welfare (cf. n.) R. V, 56, 36 ;
    liberation, final emancipation L. ;
    « The Auspicious one»
    N. of the disintegrating orﾠ destroying andﾠ reproducing deity (who constitutes the third god of the Hindū Trimūrti orﾠ Triad, the other two being Brahmā. « the creator» andﾠ Vishṇu « the preserver» ;
    in the Veda the only N. of the destroying deity wss Rudra « the terrible god»,
    but in later times it became usual to give that god the euphemistic N. Ṡiva « the auspicious» <just as the Furies were called Eὐμενίδες « the gracious ones» >, andﾠ to assign him the office of creation andﾠ reproduction as well as dissolution;
    in fact the preferential worship of Ṡiva as developed in the Purāṇas andﾠ Epic poems led to his being identified with the Supreme Being by his exclusive worshippers < called Ṡaivas>;
    in his character of destroyer he is sometimes called Kāla « black», andﾠ is then alsoﾠ identified with Time, although his active destroying function is then oftener assigned to his wife under her name Kālī, whose formidable character makes her a general object of propitiation by sacrifices;
    as presiding over reproduction consequent on destruction Ṡiva's symbol is the Liṇga <q.v.> orﾠ Phallus, under which form he is worshipped all over India at the present day;
    again one of his representations is as Ardha-nārī, « half-female», the other half being male to symbolize the unity of the generative principle RTL. 85 ;
    he has three eyes, one of which is in his forehead, andﾠ which are thought to denote his view of the three divisions of time, past, present, andﾠ future, while a moon's crescent, above the central eye, marks the measure of time by months, a serpent round his neck the measure by years,
    andﾠ a second necklace of skulls with other serpents about his person, the perpetual revolution of ages, andﾠ the successive extinction andﾠ generation of the races of mankind:
    his hair is thickly matted together, andﾠ gathered above his forehead into a coil;
    on the top of it he bears the Ganges, the rush of which in its descent from heaven he intercepted by his head that the earth might not be crushed by the weight of the falling stream;
    his throat is dark-blue from the stain of the deadly poison which would have destroyed the world had it not been swallowed by him on its production at the churning of the ocean by the gods for the nectar of immortality;
    he holds a tri-ṡūla, orﾠ three-pronged trident < alsoﾠ called Pināka> in his hand to denote, as some think, his combination of the three attributes of Creator, Destroyer, andﾠ Regenerator;
    he alsoﾠ carries a kind of drum, shaped like an hour-glass, called Ḍamaru:
    his attendants orﾠ servants are called Pramatha <qq.vv.>;
    they are regarded as demons orﾠ supernatural beings of different kinds, andﾠ form various hosts orﾠ troops called Gaṇas;
    his wife Durgā <otherwise called Kālī, Pārvatī, Umā, Gaurī, Bhavāṇī etc.> is the chief object of worship with the Ṡāktas andﾠ Tāntrikas, andﾠ in this connection he is fond of dancing < seeﾠ tāṇḍava> andﾠ wine-drinking;
    he is alsoﾠ worshipped as a great ascetic andﾠ is said to have scorched the god of love (Kāma-deva) to ashes by a glance from his central eye, that deity having attempted to inflame him with passion for Pārvatī whilst he was engaged in severe penance;
    in the exercise of his function of Universal Destroyer he is fabled to have burnt up the Universe andﾠ all the gods, including Brahmā. andﾠ Vishṇu, by a similar scorching glance,
    andﾠ to have rubbed the resulting ashes upon his body, whence the use of ashes in his worship, while the use of the Rudrâksha berries originated, it is said, from the legend that Ṡiva,
    on his way to destroy the three cities, called Tri-pura, let fall some tears of rage which became converted into these beads:
    his residence orﾠ heaven is Kailāsa, one of the loftiest northern peaks of the Himâlaya;
    he has strictly no incarnations like those of Vishṇu, though Vīra-bhadra andﾠ the eight Bhairavas andﾠ Khaṇḍo-bā etc. RTL. 266 are sometimes regarded as forms of him;
    he is especially worshipped at Benares andﾠ has even more names than Vishṇu,
    one thousand andﾠ eight being specified in the 69th chapter of the Ṡiva-Purāṇa andﾠ in the 17th chapter of the Anuṡāsana-parvan of the Maha-bhārata, some of the most common being Mahā-deva, Ṡambhu, Ṡaṃkara, Īṡa, Īṡvara, Mahêṡvara, Hara;
    his sons are Gaṇêṡa andﾠ Kārttikeya) ĀṡvṠr. MBh. Kāv. etc.. RTL. 73 ;
    a kind of second Siva (with Ṡaivas), a person who has attained a partic. stage of perfection orﾠ emancipation MBh. Sarvad. ;
    ṡiva-liṅga L. ;
    any god L. ;
    a euphemistic N. of a jackal (generally ṡivā f. q.v.);
    sacred writings L. ;
    (in astron.) N. of the sixth month;
    a post for cows (to which they are tied orﾠ for them to rub against) L. ;
    bdellium L. ;
    the fragrant bark of Feronia Elephantum L. ;
    Marsilia Dentata L. ;
    a kind of thorn-apple orﾠ = puṇḍarīka (the tree) L. ;
    quicksilver L. (cf. ṡiva-bīja);
    a partic. auspicious constellation L. ;
    a demon who inflicts diseases Hariv. ;
    = ṡukra m. kāla m. vasu m. L. ;
    the swift antelope L. ;
    rum, spirit distilled from molasses L. ;
    buttermilk L. ;
    a ruby L. ;
    a peg L. ;
    time L. ;
    N. of a son of Medhâtithi MārkP. ;
    of a son of Idhma-jihva BhP. ;
    of a prince andﾠ various authors ( alsoﾠ with dīkshita, bhaṭṭa, paṇḍita, yajvan, sūri etc.) Cat. ;
    of a fraudulent person Kathās. ;
    (du.) the god Ṡiva andﾠ his wife Kir. V, 40 Pracaṇḍ. I, 20 ;
    (cf. Vām. V, 2, 1);
    pl. N. of a class of gods in the third Manvantara Pur. ;
    of a class of Brāhmans who have attained a partic. degree of perfection like that of Ṡiva MBh. ;
    (ā) f. Ṡiva's wife ( alsoﾠ ṡivī) seeﾠ ṡivā below ;
    (am) n. welfare, prosperity, bliss ( āya, éna orﾠ ébhis, « auspiciously, fortunately, happily, luckily» ;
    ṡivāyagamyatām, « a prosperous journey to you!») RV. etc. etc.;
    final emancipation L. ;
    water L. ;
    rock-salt L. ;
    sea-salt L. ;
    a kind of borax L. ;
    iron L. ;
    myrobolan L. ;
    Tabernaemontana Coronaria L. ;
    sandal L. ;
    N. of a Purāṇa (= ṡiva-purāṇa orﾠ ṡaiva) Cat. ;
    of the house in which the Pāṇḍavas were to be burnt MārkP. ;
    of a Varsha in Plaksha-dvīpa andﾠ in Jambu-dvīpa Pur. ;
    - शिवकण्ठमलिका
    - शिवकर
    - शिवकर्णामृत
    - शिवकर्णी
    - शिवकवच
    - शिवकाञ्ची
    - शिवकान्ता
    - शिवकान्ती
    - शिवकामदुघा
    - शिवकारिणी
    - शिवकिंकर
    - शिवकीर्तन
    - शिवकुण्ड
    - शिवकुसुमाञ्जलि
    - शिवकृष्ण
    - शिवकेशादिपादान्तवर्णनस्तोत्र
    - शिवकेसर
    - शिवकोपमुनि
    - शिवकोश
    - शिवक्षेत्र
    - शिवखण्ड
    - शिवगङ्गा
    - शिवगण
    - शिवगति
    - शिवगया
    - शिवगायत्री
    - शिवगीता
    - शिवगुप्तदेव
    - शिवगुरु
    - शिवघर्मज
    - शिवंकर
    - शिवचक्र
    - शिवचतुःश्लोकीव्याख्या
    - शिवचतुर्दशी
    - शिवचन्द्र
    - शिवचम्पू
    - शिवचरित्र
    - शिवचित्त
    - शिवजी
    - शिवज्ञ
    - शिवज्ञान
    - शिवज्योतिर्विद्
    - शिवतत्त्व
    - शिवतन्त्र
    - शिवतम
    - शिवतर
    - शिवता
    - शिवताण्डव
    - शिवताति
    - शिवताल
    - शिवतीर्थ
    - शिवत्व
    - शिवदण्डक
    - शिवदत्त
    - शिवदयालु
    - शिवदयासहर्स्र
    - शिवदशक
    - शिवदायिन्
    - शिवदारु
    - शिवदास
    - शिवदिश्
    - शिवदीक्षा
    - शिवदीन
    - शिवदूतिका
    - शिवदूती
    - शिवदृष्टि
    - शिवदेव
    - शिवदैव
    - शिवद्युमणिदीपिका
    - शिवद्रुम
    - शिवद्विष्टा
    - शिवधनुर्वेद
    - शिवधर्म
    - शिवधातु
    - शिवधार
    - शिवधारिणी
    - शिवध्यानपद्धति
    - शिवनक्षत्रपुरुषव्रत
    - शिवनक्षत्रमालिका
    - शिवनाथ
    - शिवनाभि
    - शिवनामावली
    - शिवनामाष्टोत्तरशत
    - शिवनारायण
    - शिवनिर्माल्यभक्षण
    - शिवनिर्वाणस्तोत्र
    - शिवपञ्चमुखध्यान
    - शिवपञ्चवदनस्तोत्र
    - शिवपञ्चाक्षरस्तोत्र
    - शिवपञ्चाक्षरी

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > शिव

  • 14 dovere

    1. v/i have to, must
    devo averlo I must have it, I have to have it
    non devo dimenticare I mustn't forget
    deve arrivare oggi she is supposed to arrive today
    come si deve ( bene) properly
    persona very decent
    doveva succedere it was bound to happen
    dovresti avvertirlo you ought to or should let him know
    2. v/t owe
    3. m duty
    per dovere out of duty
    * * *
    dovere v.servile
    1 ( obbligo, necessità assoluta) must, to have (got) to, to be to; shall (spec. form. nella 2a e 3a pers. sing. e pl.): devo finire questo lavoro entro domani, I must (o I have to o I've got to) finish this job by tomorrow; ha dovuto studiare tutto il giorno, he had to study all day; dobbiamo salvaguardare l'ambiente, we must (o we've got to) protect the environment; devi imparare a controllarti, you must (o you've got to) learn to control yourself; dovevamo partire subito, we had to leave at once; le domande d'iscrizione dovranno essere presentate entro febbraio, applications must (o are to) be made by the end of February; non dobbiamo fermarci un minuto di più, we mustn't stop a minute longer; devo proprio firmare?, do I have to (o have I got to o must I) sign?; la commissione deve riunirsi al più presto, the commission is to meet as soon as possible; secondo regolamento, nessuno deve lasciare la scuola senza autorizzazione, according to regulations, no one shall leave the school without authorization; tutti gli ufficiali devono presentarsi al colonnello, all officers are to (o shall) report to the colonel; che cosa devo fare?, what am I to do?; non devono esserci equivoci questa volta, there must be no misunderstanding this time; dovendo assentarmi per lavoro, non potrò presenziare alla cerimonia, having to be away on business, I shall be unable to attend the ceremony // comportarsi come si deve, to behave oneself (properly) // una persona come si deve, a decent person // un lavoro come si deve, a job well done // ( possibile) che debba sempre averla vinta tu?, why must you always be right?
    2 ( necessità, opportunità, convenienza) to have to, must (in frasi affermative e interr. positive); need (solo in frasi interr. positive); not to need to, need not, not to have (got) to (in frasi negative e interr. negative): dovrò alzarmi presto se voglio prendere il primo treno, I'll have to get up early if I want to catch the first train; dovremo far controllare l'impianto elettrico, we'll have to have the electric system checked; se vuole dimagrire dovrà mettersi a dieta, he'll have to go on a diet if he wants to lose weight; dovrai smettere di fumare prima o poi, you'll have to give up smoking sooner or later; dovete vedere quel film, you must, see that film; devi venire a cena qualche sera, you must (o you'll have to) come to dinner some evening; devi farti tagliare i capelli, you must (o you'll have to) get your hair cut; devi proprio andare in banca?, do you really need to go to the bank?; devi fare benzina?, do you need (to get) any petrol?; si deve mandare un acconto?, does one need to send a deposit?; non dovete accompagnarmi all'aeroporto, posso prendere un taxi, you needn't (o you don't have to o you don't need to) take me to the airport, as I can get a taxi; non è detto che debba andare proprio tu, you don't necessarily have to go; non dovevi telefonare?, didn't you have to make a phone call?; perché devi sempre interferire?, why must you keep on interfering?
    3 ( certezza, forte probabilità) must, to be bound to; ( inevitabilità) to have to, must: dev'esserci una spiegazione, there must be an explanation; dev'essere questo l'albergo, this must be the hotel; deve arrivare da un momento all'altro, he's bound to arrive any moment; devono aver capito, they must have understood; devi certamente aver sentito parlare di lui, you must (o you're bound to) have heard of him; doveva succedere prima o poi, it had to (o it was bound to) happen sooner or later; dovrà essere informato, he'll have to be told; dev'essere stato emozionante assistere a quell'incontro, it must have been exciting to be at that match
    4 ( essere previsto, prestabilito) to be to; (spec. di treno ecc.) to be due (to): doveva diventare presidente, he was to become president; le nozze dovevano essere celebrate l'indomani, the wedding was to take place next day; devo essere a Torino alle 10, I'm to be in Turin at 10 o'clock; l'aereo deve atterrare alle 11.15, the plane is due (to land) at 11.15; il treno doveva arrivare a Firenze alla 18, the train was due in Florence at 6 p.m.
    5 ( supposizione, previsione, possibilità) must: dev'essere già a casa, he must be home by now; non devono essere ancora partiti, they mustn't (o they can't) have left yet; devono essere le 3, it must be 3 o'clock; quello dev'essere il Monte Bianco, that must be Mont Blanc; deve sentirsi molto sola, she must be very lonely; non devono essersi capiti, they can't have understood each other; devi aver sofferto molto, you must have had a hard time; dev'essere rimasto male, he must have been upset; deve aver bevuto, he must have been drinking; non doveva avere più di 15 anni, he couldn't have been more than 15 (years of age); doveva essere molto tardi quando sei rincasato, it must have been very late when you got in // deve piovere, it's going to rain // dovrà rispondere di tentato omicidio, he's going to be charged with attempted murder ∙ Come si nota dagli esempi, in frasi negative si può usare can, could in luogo di must
    6 (per esprimere una richiesta, nella 1a pers. s. e pl. del pres. indic.) shall: devo dirglielo?, shall I tell him?; dobbiamo passare a prenderti?, shall we call for you?; devo chiudere la porta a chiave?, shall I lock the door?; devo pagare in contanti o posso darle un assegno?, shall I pay cash or can I give you a cheque?; dobbiamo venire anche noi?, shall we come too?; devo farti telefonare da Michele?, shall I get Michael to call you?
    7 (al cond.) should, ought to: dovrebbero arrivare per le otto, they should (o they ought to) be here by eight; avrei dovuto scusarmi, I should have apologized; dovrebbe partire stasera, he should leave tonight; avresti dovuto andarci, you should have gone (there); dovreste aiutarlo, you ought to help him; avresti dovuto saperlo da un pezzo, you should have known ages ago; avrebbero dovuto telefonarmi, they ought to have phoned me
    8 (al cong. imperf. in frasi ipotetiche) should, were to: non dimenticherò mai quel giorno, dovessi campare 100 anni, I'll never forget that day, if I were to live 100 years; se dovesse fallire..., if he were to fail...; se dovesse venire, avvertimi, if he should come (o should he come), let me know; se doveste passare da Bologna, telefonatemi, if you should happen to be passing through Bologna, give me a call; se dovessi incontrarlo, digli che ho bisogno di parlargli, if you should meet (o should you meet) him, tell him I need to have a word with him; (se) dovessero stare così le cose..., if that were the case...
    9 ( essere obbligato, costretto) to be compelled (o obliged o forced) to; to feel* bound to: devo rinunciare all'incarico per motivi di salute, I am compelled (o obliged o forced) to give up the post for health reasons; dovette abbandonare il paese, he was forced to leave the country; se non provvederete al mio risarcimento, dovrò rivolgermi al mio avvocato, if you fail to compensate me, I shall be obliged to contact my solicitor; in seguito alle gravi accuse, il ministro dovette dimettersi, as a result of the grave allegations, the minister was forced to resign; devo riconoscere che avevamo torto, I feel bound to say we were wrong
    10 (all'imperfetto con valore di condizionale per esprimere consiglio, suggerimento) should have (o ought to have) + part. pass.: dovevi aspettartelo, you should have expected it; non doveva rispondere in quel modo, he shouldn't have answered like that; dovevamo pensarci prima, we ought to have thought of it before; dovevate vederlo, you should have seen him; dovevano immaginare che ti saresti offeso, they should have realised you'd be offended; non dovevi fare tante storie, you shouldn't have made such a fuss
    ◆ v.tr.
    1 ( essere debitore di) to owe: gli devo 500 euro, I owe him 500 euros; che cosa le devo?, what do I owe you?; deve il successo alla sua grande popolarità, he owes his success to his great popularity; ti dobbiamo molta riconoscenza, we owe you a great debt of gratitude; gli dovevamo tutto, we owed everything to him; ti devo la vita, I owe my life to you
    2 ( derivare) to take*: la Bolivia deve il suo nome a Simon Bolivar, Bolivia takes its name from Simon Bolivar
    3 ( nella forma passiva) to be due: a che cosa era dovuto il ritardo?, what was the delay due to?; ciò si deve alla sua negligenza, that is due to his negligence; l'incidente non era dovuto a un guasto meccanico, ma a un errore del pilota, the accident was not due to mechanical failure, but to pilot error; la morte era dovuta a cause naturali, death was due to natural causes; la teoria della relatività si deve a Einstein, we owe the theory of relativity to Einstein.
    dovere s.m.
    1 duty: i miei doveri di madre, my duties as a mother; i nostri doveri verso Dio, la patria, il prossimo, our duty to God, our country, our fellow creatures; i diritti e i doveri del cittadino, the rights and duties of the citizen; (dir.) dovere legale, legal duty; (dir.) soggetto a dovere, liable to duty; per senso del dovere, from a sense of duty; com'è mio dovere, as in duty bound; conosco il mio dovere, I know my duty; ho il dovere d'informarvi, I must inform you; mancò al suo dovere, he failed in his duty; mi faccio un dovere di imitarvi in tutto, I make a point of imitating you in everything; morì vittima del dovere, he died doing his duty; sento il dovere di aiutarti, I feel bound to help you; si credeva in dovere di seguirmi dappertutto, he thought it was his duty to follow me everywhere // avere il senso del dovere, to be conscious of one's duty; fare il proprio dovere, to do one's duty: fa' il tuo dovere a qualunque costo!, do your duty at all costs! // a dovere, properly (o as it should be): ti ha sistemato a dovere!, he settled your hash! // chi di dovere penserà a farlo, the person responsible will look after it; ci rivolgeremo a chi di dovere, we'll apply to the person in charge // visita di dovere, duty call // prima il dovere poi il piacere, (prov.) work before pleasure
    2 pl. (antiq.) ( saluti, convenevoli) (kind) regards, compliments, respects: i miei doveri a vostra sorella, my kindest regards to your sister; porgere i propri doveri a qlcu., to pay one's respects to s.o.
    * * *
    [do'vere]
    1. vt irreg
    (soldi, riconoscenza) to owe

    gli devo il mio successo — I owe my success to him, I have him to thank for my success

    devo tutto ai miei genitori — I owe everything to my parents

    crede che tutto gli sia dovuto — he thinks he has a god-given right to everything

    1) (obbligo) to have to

    come si deve — (bene) properly, (meritatamente) properly, as he (o she ecc) deserves

    è una persona come si deve — he is a very decent person

    non avrebbe dovuto esserne informata che il giorno dopo — she was not supposed to hear about it until the following day

    non devi fare rumore — you mustn't o you're not to make a noise

    avrebbe dovuto farlo — he should have o ought to have done it

    lui deve farlo — he has (got) to do it, he must do it

    devo farlo subito? — do I have to o have I got to do it immediately?

    devo partire domani — I'm leaving tomorrow, (purtroppo) I've got to leave tomorrow

    non devi zuccherarlo — (non è necessario) there's no need to add sugar

    2)

    lo farò, dovessi morire — I'll do it if it kills me

    3)

    (previsione) deve arrivare alle 10 — he should o is due to arrive at 10

    4)

    (probabilità) deve essere difficile farlo — it must be difficult to do

    3. sm
    (obbligo) duty

    a dovere — (bene) properly, (debitamente) as he (o she ecc) deserves

    rivolgersi a chi di dovere — to apply to the appropriate authority o person

    fare il proprio dovere di elettore — to do one's duty as a voter

    farsi un dovere di qc — to make sth one's duty

    avere il senso del dovere — to have a sense of duty

    * * *
    I 1. [do'vere]
    (when it is modal verb the use of the auxiliary essere or avere depends on the verb in the infinitive that follows) verbo modale
    1) (per esprimere obbligo) must, to have* to
    2) (per esprimere necessità, esigenza, convenienza) to have* (got) to
    3) (per esprimere consiglio, raccomandazione) should, ought to
    2.
    verbo transitivo
    1) (essere debitore di) to owe [denaro, cena] (a qcn. to sb.)

    quanto le devo? — (per un servizio) how much do I owe you? (per un acquisto) how much is it?

    mi deve un favore, delle scuse — he owes me a favour, an apology

    2) come si deve [comportarsi, agire] properly
    II 1. [do'vere]
    sostantivo maschile

    a chi di dovere — the person o people concerned

    2) a dovere properly, in the right way
    2.
    sostantivo maschile plurale doveri ant. (omaggi) respects

    - i coniugali — conjugal o marital duties

    ••

    prima il dovere, poi il piacere — prov. = duty comes first

    * * *
    dovere1
    /do'vere/ [43] (when it is modal verb the use of the auxiliary essere or avere depends on the verb in the infinitive that follows)
     1 (per esprimere obbligo) must, to have* to; il prestito deve essere rimborsato in un anno the loan must be repaid in one year; devo veramente alzarmi alle 7? must I really be up at 7 am? non devi farne parola con nessuno you mustn't mention this to anyone; devo andare a prendere i bambini a scuola I have to collect the children from school; fai quello che devi do what you have to
     2 (per esprimere necessità, esigenza, convenienza) to have* (got) to; si doveva fare qualcosa something had to be done; devi metterti a dieta se vuoi dimagrire you have to diet if you want to slim down; dobbiamo proprio discuterne adesso? need we discuss it now? devo prendere un ombrello? should I take an umbrella? do I need to take an umbrella? che devo fare? what am I to do?
     3 (per esprimere consiglio, raccomandazione) should, ought to; dovresti riflettere prima di parlare you should think before you speak
     4 (per esprimere probabilità) doveva essere lui it must have been him; dev'esserci qualche errore! there must be some mistake!
     5 (per esprimere previsione) dovremmo arrivare per le sei we should be there by six o'clock; devo vederlo domani I'll be seeing him tomorrow; quando deve o dovrebbe nascere il bambino? when's the baby due?
     6 (in offerte di cortesia o richieste di istruzioni) shall; dobbiamo aspettarti? shall we wait for you?
     1 (essere debitore di) to owe [denaro, cena] (a qcn. to sb.); quanto le devo? (per un servizio) how much do I owe you? (per un acquisto) how much is it? devo a te la mia vittoria it's thanks to you that I won; mi deve un favore, delle scuse he owes me a favour, an apology
     2 come si deve [comportarsi, agire] properly; un uomo come si deve a decent man.
    \
    See also notes... (dovere.pdf)
    ————————
    dovere2
    /do'vere/
    I sostantivo m.
     1 (obbligo) duty ( nei confronti di, verso to); avere il dovere di fare to have the duty to do; avere il senso del dovere to have a sense of duty; fare il proprio dovere to do one's duty; sentirsi in dovere di fare to feel duty bound to do; visita di dovere duty call; a chi di dovere the person o people concerned
     2 a dovere properly, in the right way
    II doveri m.pl.
     ant. (omaggi) respects
    prima il dovere, poi il piacere prov. = duty comes first
    \
    - i coniugali conjugal o marital duties.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > dovere

  • 15 Chronology

      15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.
      400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.
      202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.
      137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.
      410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.
      714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.
      1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.
      1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.
      1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.
      1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.
      1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).
      1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.
      1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.
      1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.
      1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.
      1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.
      1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.
      1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.
      1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.
      1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.
      1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.
      1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.
      1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.
      1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.
      1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.
      1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
      1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.
      1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).
      1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.
      1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.
      1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.
      1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.
       King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.
       King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.
      1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.
      1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.
      1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.
       Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.
       Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.
       Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.
      1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.
      1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.
      1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.
      1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.
      1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.
      1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.
      1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.
      1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.
      1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.
      1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.
      1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.
      1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.
      1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.
      1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.
      1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.
      1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.
      1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.
      1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.
      1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.
      1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.
      1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.
      1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.
      1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.
      1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.
      1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.
       Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.
       King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.
      1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of
       Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.
       Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.
       King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.
      1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.
      1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.
      1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.
      1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.
      1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.
      1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.
       January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.
       Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.
      1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.
      1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.
      1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.
      1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.
      1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.
       May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.
       March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.
       Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.
      1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.
      1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January
      1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.
      1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."
       28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.
       February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.
       April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.
      1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.
      1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."
      1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.
       6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.
       8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.
      1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.
      1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.
      1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
       January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.
      1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.
      1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.
      1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.
       March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.
       March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.
      1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July
      1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.
      1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).
      1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.
      1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.
       January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.
       January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.
       November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.
       October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.
       January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.
       May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.
       October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.
       January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).
       United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.
       January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.
       1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
       May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.
       June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.
       February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.
       January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.
       July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.
      2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology

  • 16 эксплуатация

    безаварийная эксплуатация
    accident-free operation
    безопасная эксплуатация
    safe operation
    быть годным к эксплуатации
    fit for service
    ввод в эксплуатацию
    introduction into service
    вводить в эксплуатацию
    1. introduce into service
    2. put in service 3. put in operation 4. place in service 5. go into service 6. come into operation 7. enter service воздушное судно, находящееся в эксплуатации владельца
    owner-operated aircraft
    ВПП для эксплуатации любых типов воздушных судов
    all-service runway
    временно снимать с эксплуатации
    lay up
    время эксплуатации
    time in service
    в эксплуатации
    in service
    в эксплуатацию
    in operation
    допускать воздушное судно к дальнейшей эксплуатации
    1. consider an aircraft serviceable
    2. return the aircraft to service допускать к дальнейшей эксплуатации
    return to service
    доход от эксплуатации
    1. operating income
    2. operating revenue закрытая для эксплуатации ВПП
    closed runway
    зона ограниченной эксплуатации
    restricted use area
    изъятый из эксплуатации
    1. out of service
    2. cancelled инструкция по эксплуатации воздушного судна
    aircraft operating instruction
    коммерческая эксплуатация
    commercial service
    наземная эксплуатация
    ground operation
    неправильная эксплуатация
    improper operation
    непригодность к летной эксплуатации
    air unworthiness
    непригодный для эксплуатации
    unserviceable
    обеспечивать эксплуатацию
    provide operation
    одновременная эксплуатация нескольких ВПП
    simultaneous use of runways
    ожидаемые условия эксплуатации
    anticipated operating conditions
    опытная эксплуатация
    attempted operation
    порядок эксплуатации в зимних условиях
    snow plan
    правила эксплуатации
    operation regulations
    продолжительность эксплуатации
    operating life
    происшествие вследствие нарушения норм эксплуатации
    operational accident
    разрешение на эксплуатацию воздушной линии
    route license
    реальные условия эксплуатации
    field conditions
    руководить эксплуатацией
    govern the operation
    руководство по технической эксплуатации воздушного судна
    aircraft maintenance guide
    с момента ввода в эксплуатацию
    since placed in service
    снимать с эксплуатации
    1. with-draw from service
    2. take out of service снятие воздушного судна с эксплуатации
    aircraft removal from service
    снятие из эксплуатации
    retirement from service
    снятый с эксплуатации
    obsolete
    соглашение о совместной эксплуатации авиалинии
    interline agreement
    состояние годности к эксплуатации
    operational status
    указания по условиям эксплуатации в полете
    inflight operational instructions
    условия эксплуатации
    1. in-service environment
    2. service conditions эксплуатация аэродрома
    aerodrome operation
    эксплуатация аэродромных транспортных средств
    aerodrome vehicle operation
    эксплуатация воздушного судна
    1. aircraft operation
    2. aircraft employment 3. operation of aircraft эксплуатация оборудования аэропорта
    airport facilities operation
    эксплуатация с перегрузкой
    overload operation

    Русско-английский авиационный словарь > эксплуатация

  • 17 καλέω

    καλέω impf. ἐκάλουν; fut. καλέσω (LXX; JosAs 17:5; 20:6; Jos., Ant. 11, 266.—W-S. §13, 5; B-D-F §74, 1; Mlt-H. 242); 1 aor. ἐκάλεσα; pf. κέκληκα. Mid.: fut. 3 sg. καλέσεται (Just., D. 43, 5). Pass. 1 fut. κληθῆσομαι (W-S. §15); 2 fut. 3 sg. κεκλήσεται Lev 13:45; Hos 12:1; 1 aor. ἐκλήθην; pf. κέκλημαι (Hom.+).
    ① to identify by name or attribute, call, call by name, name
    ⓐ call (to someone) abs., with naming implied (opp. ὑπακούειν; cp. PHamb 29, 3 [89 A.D.] κληθέντων τινῶν καὶ μὴ ὑπακουσάντων; Just., D. 136, 2 οὔτε καλοῦντος αὐτοῦ ἀνέχεσθε οὔτε λαλοῦντος ἀκούετε) of God ἐκάλουν καὶ οὐχ ὑπηκούσατε 1 Cl 57:4 (Pr 1:24); w. obj. τὰ ἴδια πρόβατα καλεῖ κατʼ ὄνομα J 10:3 v.l.
    ⓑ call, address as, designate as w. double acc. (Just., D. 3, 5 θεὸν σὺ τί καλεῖς; Hippol., Ref. 6, 20, 1) αὐτὸν καλῶμεν κύριον 2 Cl 4:1; cp. Mt 22:43, 45; 23:9 (here the sense supplies the second acc.: you are to call no one your father); Lk 20:44; Ac 14:12; Ro 9:25; Hb 2:11; 1 Pt 1:17 P72; 3:6. A voc. can take the place of the second acc. τί με καλεῖτε κύριε, κύριε; Lk 6:46. Pass. καλεῖσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ῥαββί Mt 23:7. ὑμεῖς μὴ κληθῆτε ῥαββί you are not to have people call you ‘rabbi’ vs. 8; vs. 10. Cp. Lk 22:25; Js 2:23. ὁ οἶκός μου οἶκος προσευχῆς κληθήσεται Mt 21:13; Mk 11:17 (both Is 56:7). κληθήσονται υἱοὶ θεοῦ Ro 9:26 (Hos 2:1).
    ⓒ name, provide with a name w. double acc. (Iren. 1, 1, 1 [Harv. I 8, 3]) ἐκάλουν αὐτὸ … Ζαχαρίαν they were for naming him Z. Lk 1:59 (on ἐπὶ τῷ ὀνόματι τ. πατρός after his father[’s name] cp. 1 Esdr 5:38; Sir 36:11 and s. Hs 9, 17, 4).—Pass. be given a name, be named (Jos., Ant. 1, 34) κληθήσεται Ἰωάννης his name is to be John Lk 1:60; cp. vs. 62. σὺ κληθήσῃ Κηφᾶς J 1:42. Also of localities Mt 27:8; Ac 1:19; ApcPt Rainer (s. Ἀχερουσία).—Have as a name, be called (Lucian, Jud. Voc. 7 Λυσίμαχος ἐκαλεῖτο; Just., D. 1, 3 Τρύφων…καλοῦμαι; 63, 5 Χριστιανοὶ … καλούμεθα) ὸ̔ς καλεῖται τ. ὀνόματι τούτῳ who bears this name Lk 1:61. Also of localities (Appian, Bell. Civ. 3, 70 §289; 3, 91 §374; SIG 599, 5 τὸ φρούριον ὸ̔ καλεῖται Κάριον; Just., A I, 59, 6 τὸ καλούμενον Ἔρεβος) πόλις Δαυὶδ ἥτις καλεῖται Βηθλέεμ Lk 2:4. Cp. Ac 28:1; Rv 11:8.—Lk, Ac, Rv, GPt add to a pers. or thing the name or surname which he, she, or it bears, by means of the pres. pass. ptc. (cp. SIG 685, 39 νῆσον τὴν καλουμένην Λεύκην; 826e 22; 1063, 5; PPetr II, 45 II, 20; BGU 1000, 6; PCairGoodsp 9, 4; O. Wilck II, 1210, 4). The name: ἀδελφὴ καλουμένη Μαριάμ a sister named Mary Lk 10:39 (PCairMasp 23, 16 τ. ἀδελφὴν καλουμένην Πρόκλαν; TestJob 48:1 ἡ καλουμένη Ἡμέρα). Cp. 19:2; Ac 7:58; Rv 19:11, also 12:9. πόλις καλουμένη Ν. Lk 7:11; cp. 9:10; 19:29; 21:37; 23:33; Ac 1:12; 3:11; 8:10; 9:11; 10:1; 27:8, 14, 16; Rv 1:9; 16:16; GPt 6:24. The surname (2 Macc 10:12 Πτολεμαῖος ὁ καλούμενος Μάκρων; 1 Macc 3:1; Jos., Ant. 13, 367; TestJob 1:1 Ιωβ τοῦ καλουμένου Ιωβαβ): Σίμων ὁ κ. ζηλωτής Simon the Zealot Lk 6:15. Cp. 1:36; 8:2; 22:3 (s. ἐπικαλέω 2); Ac 1:23; 13:1; 15:22 (s. ἐπικαλέω), 37.—The example of the OT (Gen 17:19; 1 Km 1:20; Hos 1:9; 1 Macc 6:17) has influenced the expr. καλεῖν τὸ ὄνομά τινος, w. the name added in the acc. καλέσεις τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἰησοῦν Mt 1:21; GJs 11:3; 14:2. Cp. Mt 1:23 (Is 7:14), 25; Lk 1:13, 31. Pass. Lk 2:21; Rv 19:13.
    ⓓ Very oft. the emphasis is to be placed less on the fact that names are such and such, than on the fact that the bearers of the name actually are what the name says about them. The pass. be named thus approaches closely the mng. to be, and it must be left to the sensitivity of the interpreter whether this transl. is to be attempted in any individual case (Quint. Smyrn. 14, 434 οὔτʼ ἔτι σεῖο κεκλήσομαι=I do not wish any longer to be yours, i.e. your daughter). Among such pass. are these: Ναζωραῖος κληθήσεται he is to be a Nazarene Mt 2:23. υἱοὶ θεοῦ κληθήσονται 5:9; cp. vs. 19ab. υἱὸς ὑψίστου κληθήσεται (in parallelism w. ἔσται μέγας) Lk 1:32; so GJs 11:3, but without the ref. to greatness; cp. Lk 1:35, 76; 2:23. οὐκέτι εἰμὶ ἄξιος κληθῆναι υἱός σου 15:19, 21. οὐκ εἰμὶ ἱκανὸς καλεῖσθαι ἀπόστολος 1 Cor 15:9. ἵνα τέκνα θεοῦ κληθῶμεν, καί ἐσμέν that we should be called children of God; and so we really are 1J 3:1 (sim. Eur., Ion 309 τ. θεοῦ καλοῦμαι δοῦλος εἰμί τε; cp. Just., D. 123, 9; καλεῖσθαι beside εἶναι as Plut., Demetr. 900 [25, 6]). οἱ κεκλημένοι ἐν ὀνόματι κυρίου those who are identified by the Lord’s name i.e. as Christians Hs 8, 1, 1. ἄχρις οὗ τὸ σήμερον καλεῖται as long as it is called ‘today’, as long as ‘today’ lasts Hb 3:13 (WLorimer, NTS 12, ’66, 390f, quoting Pla., Phd. 107c).—Here we may also class ἐν Ἰσαὰκ κληθήσεταί σοι σπέρμα in (through) Isaac you are to have your descendants Ro 9:7 and Hb 11:18 (Gen 21:12).
    ② to request the presence of someone at a social gathering, invite (Hom. et al.; pap; 2 Km 13:23; Esth 5:12; ISardRobert 1, ’64, p. 9, lines 1–4) τινά someone εἰς (τοὺς) γάμους to the wedding (Diod S 4, 70, 3; POxy 1487, 1 καλεῖ σε Θέων εἰς τοὺς γάμους) Mt 22:9; Lk 14:8, cp. vs. 10 (Syn. ἐρωτάω; s. three texts, invitations to the κλινή of Sarapis [ZPE 1, ’67, 121–26], two w. ἐ. and one w. καλέω New Docs 1, 5–9; on Luke’s compositional use of the meal context, s. XdeMeeûs, ETL 37, ’61, 847–70; cp. J 2:2; Rv 19:9. Abs. invite τινά someone 1 Cor 10:27 (Diog. L. 7, 184 of Chrysippus: ἐπὶ θυσίαν [sacrificial meal] ὑπὸ τῶν μαθητῶν κληθῆναι); priests to a child’s birthday GJs 6:2. Cp. Lk 7:39; 14:9, 12f, 16. οἱ κεκλημένοι the invited guests (Damox. Com. [IV/III B.C.] Fgm. 2, 26 K. in Athen. 3, 59, 102c τ. κεκλημένον; Jos., Ant. 6, 48; 52); Mt 22:3b (οἱ κεκλημένοι εἰς τ. γάμους as Diphilus Com. [IV/III B.C.] Fgm. 17, 1), 4, 8; Lk 14:7, 17; cp. vs. 24. ὁ κεκληκώς, the host 14:10 (s. above).—If αὐτοῦ Mk 2:15 refers to Jesus’ home, κ. in vs. 17 registers the double sense of an invitation to dinner and receipt of Messianic benefits, w. Jesus as host (s. AMcNeile, Mt ’57, 118); difft. Lk 5:27–32, s. 4 below. Of a follow-up invitation to guests upon completion of banquet preparations Mt 22:3a (cp. 3b below).
    ③ to use authority to have a person or group appear, summon
    ⓐ call together τινάς people: Workers to be paid Mt 20:8. Slaves to receive orders 25:14; Lk 19:13. Shepherds GJs 4:3. τὰς θυγατέρας τῶν Ἑβραίων for Mary’s diversion 6:1; 7:2. τὰς παρθένους Ox 404 recto, 21 (Hs 113, 5); GJs 10:1. Guests Mt 22:3a (s. 2 end).
    ⓑ summon τινά someone (Appian, Bell. Civ. 4, 82 §347; 4, 86 §362; 1 Macc 1:6) ἀπέστειλαν πρὸς αὐτὸν καλοῦντες αὐτόν they sent to him to summon him Mk 3:31. Cp. Mt 2:7; 22:3a. Of Joseph ἐκάλεσεν αὐτήν GJs 13:2 (for the context cp. Mt 1:18f). Of God: the Israelites fr. Egypt (as a type of Christ) Mt 2:15.— Call upon (Himerius, Or. 48 [=Or. 14], 10; 4 Macc 3:19) Hb 11:8.
    ⓒ a legal t.t. call in, summon before a court (oft. pap) τινά someone (Jos., Ant. 14, 169) Ac 4:18; 24:2.—The transition to mng. 4 is well illustrated by Mt 4:21; Mk 1:20; Papias (8), where the summons is also a call to discipleship.
    ④ From the mngs. ‘summon’ and ‘invite’ there develops the extended sense choose for receipt of a special benefit or experience, call (Paus. 10, 32, 13 οὓς ἂν ἡ ῏Ισις καλέσῃ διʼ ἐνυπνίων; Ael. Aristid. 30, 9 K.=10 p. 116 D.: ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ κληθείς) καλούμενος ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ Hb 5:4. τινὰ εἴς τι someone to someth., in the usage of the NT, as well as that of the LXX, of the choice of pers. for salvation: God (much more rarely Christ) calls εἰς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ βασιλείαν καὶ δόξαν 1 Th 2:12; εἰς τὴν αἰώνιον αὐτοῦ δόξαν 1 Pt 5:10. εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον 1 Ti 6:12. εἰς κοινωνίαν τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ to fellowship with his son 1 Cor 1:9. ἐκ σκότους εἰς τὸ αὐτοῦ φῶς from darkness to his light 1 Pt 2:9. ἀπὸ σκότους εἰς φῶς 1 Cl 59:2. διὰ τ. χάριτος αὐτοῦ Gal 1:15. for this God called you through our proclamation, namely to obtain the glory 2 Th 2:14; cp. 1 Th 2:12. καλέσαντι … εἰς τὴν μερίδα τοῦ κλήρους τῶν ἁγίων Col 1:12 v.l. (for ἱκανώσαντι). Without further modification Ro 8:30; 9:24; 1 Cor 7:17f, 20–22, 24; Eph 1:11 v.l.; 2 Cl 9:5; 10:1.—κ. κλήσει ἁγίᾳ call with a holy calling 2 Ti 1:9. ἀξίως τῆς κλήσεως ἧς (attraction, instead of ἣν) ἐκλήθητε worthily of the calling by which you were called Eph 4:1 (on the constr. s. W-S. §24, 4b; Rob. 478). Of God: ὁ καλῶν τινά Gal 5:8; 1 Th 5:24. Abs. ὁ καλῶν Ro 9:12. ὁ καλέσας τινά Gal 1:6; 1 Pt 1:15; 2 Pt 1:3. Likew. of Christ ὁ καλέσας τινά 2 Cl 5:1 (Just., A I, 15, 7). Pass. οἱ κεκλημένοι those who are called Hb 9:15. κεκλημένοι ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ διʼ αὐτοῦ (=Ἰ. Χρ.) 1 Cl 65:2. οἱ κεκλημένοι ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ (=υἱοῦ τ. θεοῦ) Hs 9, 14, 5. οἱ κληθέντες Hm 4, 3, 4. S. also 1d.—More closely defined: ἐν δικαιοσύνῃ B 14:7 (Is 42:6). ἐπʼ ἐλευθερίᾳ (s. ἐλευθερία) Gal 5:13. οὐκ ἐπὶ ἀκαθαρσίᾳ ἀλλʼ ἐν ἁγιασμῷ not for impurity, but in consecration 1 Th 4:7. ἐν εἰρήνῃ in peace 1 Cor 7:15. ἐκλήθητε ἐν μιᾷ ἐλπίδι τῆς κλήσεως ὑμῶν you were called in the one hope that you share in your call Eph 4:4. ἡμεῖς διὰ θελήματος αὐτου (=θεοῦ) ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ κληθέντες 1 Cl 32:4. εἰς εἰρήνην τοῦ Χριστοῦ ἐν ἐνὶ σώματι Col 3:15. ἐν τῇ σαρκί 2 Cl 9:4. ἐν Ἰσαάκ Hb 11:18 (=Ro 9:7). πόθεν ἐκλήθημεν καὶ ὑπὸ τίνος καὶ εἰς ὸ̔ν τόπον 2 Cl 1:2. εἰς τοῦτο ἵνα for this reason, that 1 Pt 3:9; cp. 2:21. Of Christ: οὐκ ἦλθον καλέσαι δικαίους ἀλλὰ ἁμαρτωλούς (+ εἰς μετάνοιαν v.l.) Mt 9:13; Mk 2:17 (on a prob. double sense in this pass. s. 2); 2 Cl 2:4; cp. vs. 7 (cp. Just., A I, 40, 7 εἰς μετάνοιαν καλεῖ πάντας ὁ θεός); Lk 5:32 (ἐλήλυθα … εἰς μετάνοιαν). Of God: ἐκάλεσεν ἡμᾶς οὐκ ὄντας he called us when we did not exist 2 Cl 1:8. ὁ καλῶν τὰ μὴ ὄντα ὡς ὄντα the one who calls into being what does not exist Ro 4:17 (Philo, Spec. Leg. 4, 187 τὰ μὴ ὄντα ἐκάλεσεν εἰς τὸ εἶναι; cp. Is 41:4; 48:13).—Of the call to an office by God Hb 5:4.—JHempel, Berufung u. Bekehrung (also GBeer Festschr.) ’35; HWildberger, Jahwes Eigentumsvolk ’60.—B. 1276. DELG. EDNT. M-M. TW.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > καλέω

  • 18 wiederbeleben

    to revivify; to revitalize; to resuscitate; to revive
    * * *
    wie|der|be|le|ben
    vt sep
    Bewusstlosen to revive, to resuscitate
    * * *
    1) (to bring (a person) back to consciousness.) resuscitate
    2) (to come, or bring, back to consciousness, strength, health etc: They attempted to revive the woman who had fainted; She soon revived; The flowers revived in water; to revive someone's hopes.) revive
    3) (to come or bring back to use etc: This old custom has recently (been) revived.) revive
    * * *
    wie·der|be·le·ben *
    vt MED
    ▪ jdn \wiederbeleben to revive [or resuscitate] sb; Scheintote to bring sb back from the dead
    * * *
    s. wieder 3)
    * * *
    wiederbeleben v/t (trennb, hat) resuscitate; → auch wieder 2
    * * *
    s. wieder 3)
    * * *
    v.
    to resuscitate v.
    to revive v.
    to revivify v.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > wiederbeleben

  • 19 empresa

    f.
    1 company.
    pequeña y mediana empresa small and medium-sized business
    libre empresa free enterprise
    empresa conjunta joint venture
    empresa filial subsidiary
    empresa matriz parent company
    empresa privada private company
    la empresa privada the private sector
    empresa pública public sector firm
    la empresa pública the public sector
    2 enterprise, undertaking.
    se embarcó en una peligrosa empresa he embarked on a risky enterprise o undertaking
    * * *
    1 (compañía) firm, company
    2 (dirección) management
    3 (acción) undertaking, venture
    \
    empresa filial subsidiary company
    empresa matriz parent company
    empresa multinacional multinational company
    empresa naviera shipping company
    libre empresa free enterprise
    * * *
    noun f.
    1) company, corporation, firm, business
    2) undertaking, venture
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=tarea) enterprise
    2) (Com, Econ) (=compañía) firm, company

    empresa funeraria — undertaker's, mortician's (EEUU)

    3) (=dirección) management

    la empresa lamenta que... — the management regrets that...

    * * *
    1)
    a) ( compañía) company, firm (BrE)
    b) ( dirección) management
    2) (tarea, labor) venture, undertaking
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( compañía) company, firm (BrE)
    b) ( dirección) management
    2) (tarea, labor) venture, undertaking
    * * *
    empresa1
    1 = business [businesses, -pl.], commercial firm, company, corporation, firm, business enterprise, outfit, business interest, business firm, industrial firm, commercial enterprise, operating company.

    Ex: To a small or mid-sized business, information is critical for effective planning, growth and development.

    Ex: Difficulties over access to these can arise when research project has been financed by a scientific organization or commercial firm who have an interest in maintaining security.
    Ex: Among the companies offering 'Mice' are Microsoft, Vision and Apple, but more are anticipated.
    Ex: The main form of knowledge transfer and the basis for decision making within corporations has not been a paper, a document or a detailed report, but a set of overhead slides and the discussions around them.
    Ex: The European Development Fund finances projects in overseas countries for which European-based firms can supply equipment and know-how.
    Ex: The 'Books at work' project in Kalmar in southern Sweden is the result of collaboration between trade unions, business enterprises and the public library.
    Ex: The author compares the advantages and disadvantages of buying from the larger established companies and smaller outfits.
    Ex: As an example, the University of Hawaii libraries have installed an online catalogue on which they will hang a special assortment of databases that are needed by Hawaii and Pacific business interests.
    Ex: Collection and preservation of records is an expensive pursuit and the task of persuading cost conscious business firms that they ought to preserve their records is an unenviable one.
    Ex: In libraries serving industrial firms, for example, the cost of not finding information may be high; this is why 'hard headed businessmen' add to their overheads by paying for extensive library services.
    Ex: Some commercial enterprises subsidise satellite communications for academic institutions.
    Ex: In the future, these files will be made readily accessible to other Glaxo operating companies through the use of computers.
    * a cuenta de la empresa = at company expense.
    * administración de empresas = business administration.
    * admnistrador de empresa = firm administrator.
    * archivo de empresa = business archives.
    * biblioteca de empresa = commercial library, industrial library, corporate library, company library, business library.
    * bibliotecario de empresa = industrial librarian.
    * comida de empresa = company dinner.
    * como las empresas = business-like.
    * conglomerado de empresas = conglomerate.
    * contratación de personal cualificado de otras empresas = lateral hiring.
    * curso mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich course.
    * dejar la empresa = jump + ship.
    * de la propia empresa = company-owned.
    * de toda la empresa = systemwide.
    * director de empresa = company director.
    * directorio de empresas en base de datos = corporate directory database, company directory database.
    * documentación de empresas = business record.
    * empresa afiliada = sister company.
    * empresa comercial = commercial agency, commercial vendor, commercial business, business firm.
    * empresa con solera = established player.
    * empresa consolidada = established player.
    * empresa constructora = property developer.
    * empresa consumada = established player.
    * empresa de búsqueda personalizada de ejecutivos = headhunter.
    * empresa de cobro de deudas = debt collection agency.
    * empresa de contabilidad = accounting firm.
    * empresa dedicada a la venta por correo = mail order company.
    * empresa dedicada al desarrollo de productos = product developer.
    * empresa dedicada a los sondeos de opinión = polling firm, polling agency.
    * empresa dedicada al proceso del cereal = corn processor.
    * empresa de grandes derroches = high roller.
    * empresa de investigación = research firm.
    * empresa de la limpieza = cleaning firm.
    * empresa de liempza = cleaning business.
    * empresa de limpieza = janitorial business.
    * empresa de medios de comunicación = media company.
    * empresa de mudanzas = mover.
    * empresa de nuestro grupo = sister company, sister organisation.
    * empresa de nueva creación = this sort of thing, startup [start-up].
    * empresa de ordenadores = computer company.
    * empresa de reparto de paquetes = package delivery company.
    * empresa de seguridad = security firm.
    * empresa de servicios = service organisation, service agency, service company.
    * empresa de servicios de información = information broker, broker, information broking.
    * empresa de servicio social = social utility.
    * empresa de servicios públicos = public utility, utility company.
    * empresa de solera = established player.
    * empresa de telecomunicaciones = computer bureau.
    * empresa de trabajo = industrial affiliation.
    * empresa de un grupo = operating company.
    * empresa de viajes = travel company.
    * empresa en la que sólo pueden trabajar empleados que pertenezcan a un sindic = close shop.
    * empresa farmacéutica = drug company.
    * empresa filial = subsidiary company.
    * empresa hipotecaria = mortgage company.
    * empresa industrial = industrial firm.
    * empresa organizadora de congresos = conference organiser.
    * empresa privada = private vendor, private company, private business, private firm.
    * empresa pública = civilian employer, public firm.
    * empresas americanas, las = corporate America.
    * empresa sindicada = union shop.
    * empresa televisiva = television company.
    * empresa transportadora = shipper, shipping agent.
    * en toda la empresa = company-wide, systemwide.
    * específico de las empresas = company-specific.
    * fusión de empresas = consolidation.
    * gasto de empresa = business expense.
    * gestión de empresas = business management.
    * grupo de empresas = business group.
    * guardería de la empresa = workplace crêche.
    * información sobre empresas = business intelligence.
    * intranet de empresa = corporate intranet.
    * libro de empresa = organisation manual.
    * mercado de la empresa = corporate market.
    * mundo de la empresa = business world.
    * mundo de la empresa, el = corporate world, the.
    * mundo de las empresas = business environment.
    * página web de empresa = business site, corporate site.
    * para toda la empresa = company-wide, enterprise-wide.
    * partícipe en la empresa = corporate insider.
    * patrocinado por la propia empresa = company-sponsored.
    * pequeña empresa = small business.
    * persona de la propia empresa = insider.
    * programa de prácticas en la empresa = internship program(me), internship.
    * programa mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich programme.
    * propiedad de la empresa = company-owned.
    * PYME (Pequeña y Mediana Empresa) = SME (Small and Medium Sized Enterprise).
    * que afecta a toda la empresa = enterprise-wide.
    * sitio web de empresa = business site, corporate site.
    * trabajador cualificado contratado de otra empresa = lateral hire.
    * ya parte de la empresa = on board.

    empresa2
    2 = enterprise, scheme, venture, quest, operation, undertaking.

    Ex: Only those who have attempted to edit the proceedings of a conference can appreciate the magnitude and scope of such an enterprise.

    Ex: There are forty-six centres in twenty-five countries participating in the scheme.
    Ex: However rudimentary or advanced the system, and no matter what the age of the children involved, certain matters should be considered before setting out on the venture.
    Ex: It is a quest without a satisfactory conclusion - a holy grail of librarianship.
    Ex: When he was younger he really turned the library around, from a backwater, two-bit operation to the respected institution it is today.
    Ex: Since the file from 1966-1975 contains some 2,500,000 references, a search of the complete data base is a fairly large-scale undertaking.
    * empresa descabellada = fool's errand.
    * empresa próspera = success story.

    * * *
    A
    1 (compañía) company, firm ( BrE)
    empresa filial subsidiary company
    mediano, pequeño1 (↑ pequeño (1))
    2 (dirección) management
    la empresa no se hace responsable de … the management cannot accept liability for …
    libre1 (↑ libre (1))
    Compuestos:
    start-up
    public utility company, public utility
    sponsors (pl) ( of an artistic event)
    private sector company
    public sector company
    raider
    masculine and feminine (Ur) self-employed person, sole trader ( BrE)
    B (tarea, labor) venture, undertaking
    nos hemos embarcado en una arriesgada empresa we've undertaken a risky venture
    pereció en la empresa ( liter); she perished in the attempt ( liter)
    * * *

     

    empresa sustantivo femenino
    1 ( compañía) company, firm (BrE);

    2 (tarea, labor) venture, undertaking
    empresa sustantivo femenino
    1 Com Ind company, firm
    empresa pública, state-owned company
    2 (proyecto, tarea) undertaking, task: es una empresa muy arriesgada, it's a very risky venture
    ' empresa' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    administración
    - ámbito
    - amenaza
    - asegurar
    - bacalao
    - casa
    - CEPYME
    - compañía
    - constructor
    - constructora
    - contabilidad
    - contrata
    - dar
    - decorar
    - deficitaria
    - deficitario
    - definitivamente
    - departamento
    - depurar
    - dirección
    - dirigir
    - diversificarse
    - económica
    - económico
    - ejecutiva
    - ensalzar
    - entablar
    - escala
    - escáner
    - espaldarazo
    - estatal
    - estructuración
    - forjar
    - gestión
    - hipotecar
    - hostelería
    - imagen
    - imposición
    - inspección
    - juez
    - lanzamiento
    - ligarse
    - llevar
    - mecánica
    - nacional
    - negocio
    - negrera
    - negrero
    - patrón
    - patrona
    English:
    administration
    - amount to
    - association
    - audit
    - backbone
    - bankrupt
    - base
    - be
    - being
    - boss
    - branch out
    - builder
    - business
    - by-law
    - carrier
    - climb down
    - cock-up
    - collapse
    - come in
    - company
    - creativity
    - credit bureau
    - dark horse
    - deal with
    - department
    - developer
    - disorganized
    - division
    - do
    - down-market
    - effective
    - engineer
    - enter
    - enterprise
    - equal
    - established
    - exploit
    - firm
    - fixture
    - float
    - flourish
    - go down
    - go under
    - head
    - house
    - in-house
    - insider
    - intimidate
    - launch
    - launching
    * * *
    1. [sociedad] company;
    pequeña y mediana empresa small and medium-sized business;
    prohibido fijar carteles: responsable la empresa anunciadora [en letrero] post o stick no bills: advertisers will be held liable
    empresa común joint venture;
    empresa conjunta joint venture;
    empresa filial subsidiary;
    empresa funeraria undertaker's;
    empresa júnior junior enterprise, = firm set up and run by business studies students;
    empresa libre, libre empresa free enterprise;
    empresa matriz parent company;
    empresa mixta mixed company;
    empresa privada private company;
    empresa pública public sector firm;
    empresa punto com dot.com (company);
    empresa de seguridad security firm;
    empresa de servicio público public utility, US public service corporation;
    empresa de servicios service company;
    empresa de trabajo temporal Br temping o US temp agency;
    empresa de transportes Br haulage o US trucking firm;
    Urug empresa unipersonal sole trader, one person business
    2. [dirección] management;
    las negociaciones con la empresa the negotiations with management
    3. [acción] enterprise, undertaking;
    se embarcó en una peligrosa empresa he embarked on a risky enterprise o undertaking
    * * *
    f
    1 company;
    gran empresa large company;
    pequeña empresa small business;
    mediana empresa medium-sized business
    2 fig
    venture, undertaking
    * * *
    1) compañía, firma: company, corporation, firm
    2) : undertaking, venture
    * * *
    1. (entidad) company [pl. companies]
    2. (negocio) business [pl. businesses]

    Spanish-English dictionary > empresa

  • 20 M

    f.
    m, letter m.
    * * *
    m
    1 ( minuto) minute; (abreviatura) min
    ————————
    m
    1 ( metro) metre (US meter); (símbolo) m
    ————————
    m
    1 ( milla) mile; (símbolo) m
    * * *
    I
    =m ['eme]
    SF (=letra) M, m II
    ABR
    1) = mediano M
    2) = marzo Mar
    III
    ABR
    1) = metro(s) m

    m 2 —

    = metros cuadrados sq. m., m 2

    m 3 —

    = metros cúbicos cu. m., m 3
    2) = masculino masc., m
    * * *
    m femenino (read as ['eme]) the letter M, m
    * * *
    m femenino (read as ['eme]) the letter M, m
    * * *
    M
    (= marzo)
    M, m
    ( read as /ˈeme/)
    B (= masculino) m, male
    C (= mujer) female
    D (= metro) meter*
    * * *

    Multiple Entries:
    M    
    m
    M,
    ◊ m sustantivo femenino (read as /'eme/) the letter M, m

    m (metro) m, meter( conjugate meter)
    M, m sustantivo femenino (letra) M, m

    'M' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    a.m.
    - ábaco
    - abad
    - abadejo
    - abajeña
    - abajeño
    - abalorio
    - abanderada
    - abanderado
    - abandonar
    - abandono
    - abanico
    - abaratamiento
    - abastecimiento
    - abasto
    - abate
    - abatimiento
    - abdomen
    - abecé
    - abecedario
    - abedul
    - abejorro
    - abeto
    - abismo
    - abogada
    - abogado
    - abolengo
    - abominable
    - abonada
    - abonado
    - abono
    - abordaje
    - aborto
    - abrasiva
    - abrasivo
    - abrazo
    - abrebotellas
    - abrecartas
    - abrefácil
    - abrelatas
    - abridor
    - abrigo
    - abril
    - abrillantador
    - abrirse
    - abrumar
    - absceso
    - absentismo
    - ábside
    - absoluta
    English:
    a.m.
    - abdomen
    - abnormal
    - abnormally
    - abominable
    - absenteeism
    - abstemious
    - academy
    - acclaim
    - acclimatize
    - acclimatized
    - accommodate
    - accommodation
    - accompaniment
    - accomplishment
    - accustom
    - acknowledgement
    - acrimonious
    - adamant
    - aerodrome
    - affirm
    - affirmative
    - agreement
    - aim
    - alarm
    - alarming
    - album
    - alimony
    - all-time
    - almond
    - altruism
    - aluminium
    - amalgam
    - ameliorate
    - amenable
    - amenities
    - amiable
    - amid
    - amiss
    - ammonia
    - amoeba
    - amok
    - among
    - amongst
    - amoral
    - amorphous
    - amortization
    - amortize
    - amphetamine
    - anaemia
    * * *
    M (abrev de martes)
    Tues;
    11-M = 11 March 2004, date of the bombing of four Madrid commuter trains by Al-Quaeda-inspired terrorists
    11-M
    The al-Qaeda-inspired bombings in Madrid on the morning of 11 March 2004 destroyed several train lines and killed almost 200 people. This is the bloodiest terrorist atrocity in recent Spanish history, and has consequently become a significant point of reference – it is commonly referred to as 11-M, denoting the day and month when it occurred. This use of a figure followed by the initial of a month is used as a form of shorthand for a number of significant dates. Thus 23-F signifies the attempted coup in the parliament building in Madrid on 23 February 1981, and 20-N refers to the date of Franco's death – 20 November 1975. The Spanish equivalent of “9-11” to refer to the attack on the World Trade Center in New York in 2001 is 11-S.
    M, m ['eme] nf
    1. [letra] M, m
    2. Comp
    Fam Euf
    lo mandé a la m I told him where to go
    * * *
    m
    abr (= metro) m (= meter); (= minuto) m (= minute)
    * * *
    m nf
    : thirteenth letter of the Spanish alphabet

    Spanish-English dictionary > M

Страницы
  • 1
  • 2

См. также в других словарях:

  • Use (law) — Use, as a term in real property law of common law countries, amounts to a recognition of the duty of a person, to whom property has been conveyed for certain purposes, to carry out those purposes.Uses were equitable or beneficial interests in… …   Wikipedia

  • Use of capital punishment by country — The following is a summary of the use of capital punishment by country. Contents 1 Capital Punishment In The World 2 Africa 3 The Americas 4 Asia Pacific …   Wikipedia

  • Attempted murder — Criminal law Part …   Wikipedia

  • Use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport — The use of performance enhancing drugs in sport is commonly referred to by the term doping , particularly by those organizations that regulate competitions. The use of performance enhancing drugs is mostly done to improve athletic performance.… …   Wikipedia

  • Use of force — The term use of force refers to the right of an individual or authority to settle conflicts or prevent certain actions by applying measures to either: a) dissuade another party from a particular course of action, or b) physically intervene to… …   Wikipedia

  • Attempted military coup in Ceylon, 1962 — The attempted military coup d état of 1962 in Ceylon was an attempted coup d état planned by several senior military and police officers that failed. The plot was due to be carried out in the night of 27 January 1962; however, before the coup… …   Wikipedia

  • Use of DNA in forensic entomology — Forensic science Physiological sciences …   Wikipedia

  • Use of the circumflex in French — The circumflex (^) is one of the five diacritics used in the French language. It may be used atop the vowels a, e, i, o, and u.In French, the circumflex has three primary functions:*It affects the pronunciation of a , e , and o ; although used on …   Wikipedia

  • Attempted impeachment of Dick Cheney — HR 333 redirects here. For the star (HD 6798), see List of stars in Cepheus. HR 799 redirects here. For the star (13 Persei), see Theta Persei. In April 2007, Representative Dennis Kucinich (D Ohio) filed an impeachment resolution (H.Res. 333)… …   Wikipedia

  • Police use of firearms in the United Kingdom — In the United Kingdom, the majority of police officers do not carry firearms, except in special circumstances. This originates from the formation of the Metropolitan Police Service in the 19th century, when police were not armed, partly to… …   Wikipedia

  • History and use of the Single Transferable Vote — The history and usage of the Single Transferable Vote voting system has been a series of relatively modest periods of usage and disusage throughout the world, however today it is seeing increasing popularity and proposed implementation as a… …   Wikipedia

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»